Introduction
Mathematics anxiety represents a significant challenge in primary education, particularly among girls, where it can hinder academic progress and long-term engagement with the subject. This issue is pressing because it often leads to reduced performance in mathematics, avoidance of related career paths, and broader implications for gender equity in STEM fields (Hill et al., 2016). In the UK context, where educational policies emphasise inclusive learning, understanding the roots of this anxiety is crucial for developing targeted interventions. Indeed, research indicates that early experiences in primary school can shape attitudes towards mathematics, with girls sometimes experiencing higher levels due to societal stereotypes or teaching practices (Dowker et al., 2012). This literature review aims to explore the cognitive, emotional, and educational influences on mathematics anxiety in primary school-aged girls, drawing on evidence-based studies. The guiding research question is: What are the key cognitive, emotional, and educational factors contributing to mathematics anxiety among primary school girls, and how do these interact to affect their learning?
Cognitive Influences on Mathematics Anxiety
Cognitive factors play a central role in the development of mathematics anxiety, often linking working memory and metacognitive processes to heightened stress during mathematical tasks. For instance, Witt (2012) examined how mathematics anxiety impacts primary school children’s working memory, finding that anxious children exhibited reduced capacity, which in turn exacerbated their anxiety in a cyclical manner. This study, conducted with a sample of 60 UK primary pupils, used standardised tests to measure working memory, revealing a significant negative correlation. However, a limitation here is the relatively small sample size, which may not fully represent diverse socioeconomic backgrounds, potentially limiting generalisability to broader UK primary school contexts. Furthermore, the cross-sectional design fails to capture longitudinal changes, making it challenging to infer causality.
Building on this, Sorvo et al. (2017) investigated the relationship between math anxiety and basic arithmetic skills in Finnish primary school children, including girls, through a larger cohort of 1,327 participants. Their findings suggested that poor arithmetic performance fuels anxiety, which then impairs cognitive processing. A critical point is the cultural specificity; while the study highlights cognitive links, its Finnish focus might not directly translate to UK educational systems, where curricula differ in emphasis on rote learning versus problem-solving. Comparatively, Sorvo et al. (2019) extended this work longitudinally, tracking 1,327 children over two years and confirming that early cognitive difficulties predict rising anxiety levels, particularly in girls. This longitudinal approach strengthens the evidence, yet it overlooks gender-specific analyses in depth, assuming similar patterns across sexes without robust subgroup comparisons.
Metacognition, as defined by Flavell (1979), involves awareness of one’s cognitive processes, and its role in anxiety mitigation is evident in later studies. Schraw and Moshman (1995) outlined metacognitive theories, arguing that children who develop self-monitoring skills are better equipped to manage anxiety. Applying this to mathematics, Dignath and Büttner (2008) conducted a meta-analysis of 30 intervention studies, including primary levels, showing that fostering metacognitive strategies reduced anxiety by improving self-regulation. However, the meta-analysis included varied educational contexts, with some studies having small effect sizes due to short intervention durations, raising questions about long-term efficacy in UK classrooms where teacher training in metacognition may be inconsistent.
Emotional Influences on Mathematics Anxiety
Emotional aspects, such as fear and negative attitudes, significantly contribute to mathematics anxiety, often manifesting as avoidance behaviours in primary girls. Dowker et al. (2012) surveyed 124 UK primary children and found that girls reported more negative attitudes towards mathematics, linked to emotional responses like frustration during challenging tasks. The study’s use of self-report questionnaires is a strength for capturing subjective experiences, but self-reports can be biased, especially in young children who might not articulate emotions accurately. Moreover, the sample was drawn from a single region, potentially skewing results towards specific demographic influences.
Hill et al. (2016) provided a comparative perspective, analysing data from 1,440 Italian and English students, including primary ages, and identifying gender differences where girls showed higher anxiety specificity to mathematics rather than general anxiety. This cross-cultural element enhances applicability to the UK, yet the study’s reliance on correlational data limits causal inferences—does anxiety cause poor performance, or vice versa? Emotionally, Prodromou and Frederiksen (2018) explored effects on primary students, noting that anxiety leads to emotional distress, reducing motivation. Their qualitative approach with 45 participants offered rich insights into emotional narratives, but the small, non-UK sample restricts direct relevance, and the lack of quantitative measures weakens the ability to generalise findings.
Longitudinally, Sorvo et al. (2019) again highlighted emotional trajectories, showing that anxiety in girls often intensifies with age, tied to emotional self-perception. Critically, this study’s large sample provides robust evidence, though it underemphasises emotional interventions, focusing more on cognitive links. Overall, emotional influences appear intertwined with cognitive ones, yet research often treats them separately, a gap that could be addressed through integrated models.
Educational Influences and Interventions
Educational practices, including teaching methods and classroom environments, exert considerable influence on mathematics anxiety, particularly for girls in primary settings. Alkan (2013) investigated strategies used by Turkish primary teachers to reduce anxiety, such as incorporating games and real-life applications, which reportedly lowered anxiety levels in a study of 150 pupils. While practical, the study’s observational design lacks control groups, making it hard to attribute changes solely to interventions, and its non-UK context may not align with British curricula like the National Curriculum’s focus on mastery.
Dignath and Büttner (2008) further emphasised self-regulated learning interventions, meta-analysing studies where metacognitive training in primary schools improved emotional regulation and reduced anxiety. This is promising for educational policy, but the analysis noted variability in implementation, with some studies showing minimal effects due to inadequate teacher preparation—a pertinent critique for UK schools facing resource constraints.
The Victoria State Government (2025) professional practice note advocates using metacognitive strategies to empower students, aligning with UK initiatives like those from the Department for Education. However, as a government document, it lacks empirical data, serving more as guidance than evidence, which limits its academic weight. Comparatively, Prodromou and Frederiksen (2018) suggested teacher-led emotional support, but their findings are critiqued for small sample sizes and potential researcher bias in qualitative interpretations.
In analysing these, educational influences often mediate cognitive and emotional factors; for example, poor teaching can amplify cognitive deficits, leading to emotional distress. Yet, many studies suffer from methodological issues, such as limited gender-specific focus, calling for more targeted UK-based research.
Conclusion
This literature review has examined the cognitive, emotional, and educational influences on mathematics anxiety in primary school-aged girls, revealing interconnected factors that impair learning. Cognitive elements like working memory deficits (Witt, 2012) interact with emotional fears (Hill et al., 2016) and are modulated by educational practices (Alkan, 2013). Critically, while studies provide sound evidence, limitations in sample sizes, cultural relevance, and design underscore the need for more robust, UK-centric research. Implications for education include integrating metacognitive training to foster resilience, potentially reducing gender disparities in mathematics. Addressing this issue could enhance equity and outcomes, warranting further investigation into innovative interventions.
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References
- Alkan, V. (2013). Reducing mathematics anxiety: The ways implemented by teachers at primary schools. International Journal of Social Science & Education, 3(4), 795–807.
- Dignath, C., & Büttner, G. (2008). Components of fostering self-regulated learning among students: A meta-analysis on intervention studies at primary and secondary school level. Metacognition and Learning, 3(3), 231–264.
- Dowker, A., Bennett, K., & Smith, L. (2012). Attitudes to mathematics in primary school children. Child Development Research, 2012, Article 124939.
- Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906–911.
- Hill, F., Mammarella, I. C., Devine, A., Caviola, S., Passolunghi, M. C., & Szűcs, D. (2016). Mathematics anxiety in primary and secondary school students: Gender differences, developmental changes and anxiety specificity. Learning and Individual Differences, 48, 45–53.
- Prodromou, T., & Frederiksen, N. (2018). The effects of mathematics anxiety on primary students. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 16(2), 1–18.
- Schraw, G., & Moshman, D. (1995). Metacognitive theories. Educational Psychology Review, 7(4), 351–371.
- Sorvo, R., Koponen, T., Viholainen, H., Aro, T., Räikkönen, E., Peura, P., Tolvanen, A., & Aro, M. (2019). Development of math anxiety and its longitudinal relationships with arithmetic achievement among primary school children. Learning and Individual Differences, 69, 173–181.
- Sorvo, R., Koponen, T., Viholainen, H., Aro, T., Räikkönen, E., Peura, P., & Aro, M. (2017). Math anxiety and its relationship with basic arithmetic skills among primary school children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(3), 309–327.
- Victoria State Government, Department of Education and Training. (2025). Professional practice note 14: Using metacognitive strategies to support student self-regulation and empowerment.
- Witt, M. (2012). The impact of mathematics anxiety on primary school children’s working memory. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 8(2), 263–274.
