Introduction
In the realm of media theory, the notion that media shape human experience beyond mere content has been a cornerstone since Marshall McLuhan’s seminal declaration that “the medium is the message” (McLuhan, 1964). This course, “The Medium and the Message: An Introduction to Media Theory,” has explored how media function as extensions of human senses, altering perceptions of time, space, and power, often through processes of storage, transmission, and processing. Drawing on key theorists like McLuhan, Harold Innis, and John Durham Peters, alongside literary and media texts such as Ovid’s Narcissus myth, Jorge Luis Borges’s “Funes the Memorious,” and the Black Mirror episode “USS Callister,” this essay proposes an original media theory model: media as “temporal parasites.” This model conceptualises media not merely as tools or extensions but as parasitic entities that latch onto human temporal experiences, feeding on and distorting our sense of time to sustain themselves, while numbing users to the resultant alienation. Unlike McLuhan’s “narcosis” or Innis’s “bias of communication,” which focus on sensory or societal imbalances, this framework emphasises media’s active parasitism on time—extracting value from human temporality (e.g., attention spans) and injecting distortions that reshape identity and power dynamics. The thesis argues that in the digital age, media’s parasitic relationship with time fosters a cycle of dependency and disconnection, evident in both historical and contemporary contexts, ultimately extending beyond existing theories by highlighting media’s self-perpetuating exploitation of temporal resources. This analysis integrates close readings of course texts with external research, demonstrating how the model illuminates overlooked dimensions of media’s impact. The essay proceeds by outlining the model’s theoretical foundations, applying it to literary and media examples, and discussing its broader implications.
Theoretical Foundations of Media as Temporal Parasites
The model of media as temporal parasites builds on core course concepts but introduces a novel metaphor to explain media’s insidious effects on time. McLuhan’s idea of media as extensions of human faculties, which can lead to “auto-amputation” or numbing (narcosis), provides a starting point (McLuhan, 1964). For McLuhan, technologies like the wheel or electric light extend the body but desensitise users to their own limitations, much like Narcissus gazing unaware at his reflection. However, this model goes beyond McLuhan by framing media as parasites that actively consume and alter temporal flows, rather than passively extending senses. Parasites, in biological terms, derive sustenance from hosts while often weakening them; similarly, media “feed” on human time—through endless scrolling or data processing—distorting it into fragmented, non-linear experiences that benefit the medium’s persistence.
Harold Innis’s concept of the “bias of communication” further informs this framework, particularly his distinction between time-biased media (e.g., oral traditions that emphasise durability and continuity) and space-biased media (e.g., print that facilitates expansion and control) (Innis, 1951). Innis argued that media biases influence societal power structures, with time-biased forms supporting stable hierarchies and space-biased ones enabling empires. The temporal parasite model extends this by suggesting that modern media hybridise these biases, parasitically eroding personal time to amplify spatial reach. For instance, social media platforms extract user time through algorithmic feeds, converting it into data commodities that sustain corporate power, thus creating a bias towards perpetual presentism rather than historical depth.
John Durham Peters complements this with his analysis of media as infrastructures for managing time and space, such as clocks and writing, which organise human existence (Peters, 2015). Peters views media as elemental forces that bridge or disrupt communication across distances, often revealing human desires for connection and immortality. The parasite model advances Peters by positing that media do not merely mediate time but parasitise it, injecting “pharmakon”-like effects—remedies that become poisons (as per Derrida’s reading of Plato, though not directly from the course). External research supports this: Zylinska (2017) in her book on nonhuman photography argues that digital media accelerate temporal collapse, turning time into a resource mined by algorithms, akin to parasitic extraction. Similarly, a peer-reviewed study by Crary (2013) examines how 24/7 capitalism, enabled by media, erodes sleep and reflection, parasitising human rest cycles. Finally, Hassan (2009) critiques network society’s “time compression,” where media like the internet devour chronological time, fostering disconnection. These sources underscore the model’s originality: while course theorists highlight media’s shaping of time, the parasite metaphor reveals an exploitative dynamic, where media sustain themselves by depleting users’ temporal agency, leading to identity fragmentation and power imbalances.
Applying the Model: Narcissus, Funes, and Digital Simulations
Close analysis of course texts reveals how the temporal parasite model illuminates media’s distortive effects on identity. Ovid’s myth of Narcissus and Echo, from Metamorphoses, exemplifies early media as reflective parasites (Ovid, 8 AD/2004). Narcissus, entranced by his watery reflection—a primitive medium—becomes numb to reality, wasting away in self-absorption. Here, the pool acts as a temporal parasite: it feeds on Narcissus’s time, trapping him in an eternal present of gazing, distorting his identity into solipsism. Echo, meanwhile, represents failed transmission, her voice parasitised by divine curse, echoing fragments without agency. This mirrors McLuhan’s narcisis as narcosis, but the parasite model extends it by emphasising the medium’s extraction of temporal vitality, leaving Narcissus temporally depleted. In a modern twist, external research by Turkle (2011) on digital identities shows how social media “mirrors” parasitise time, fostering narcissistic loops where users curate selves, often leading to anxiety and disconnection—thus building on Ovid by applying the model to digital remediation.
Borges’s “Funes the Memorious” further illustrates temporal parasitism through memory as a burdensome medium (Borges, 1942). Funes, cursed with perfect recall, experiences time as an overwhelming, uncompressed flood; every moment is stored without processing, paralysing him. This aligns with Peters’s view of media as storage devices that alter time, but the parasite model reframes Funes’s memory as a voracious entity that feeds on his temporal flow, distorting it into stasis. Unlike Innis’s time-biased media that preserve continuity, Funes’s condition hybridises storage and transmission, extracting his ability to forget and move forward, thus numbing his engagement with the present. Close reading reveals Borges’s irony: Funes “remembers” everything yet understands nothing, his identity eroded by this parasitic overload. Extending this, Crary (2013) discusses how digital archives parasitise collective memory, compressing history into searchable data, often at the cost of nuanced interpretation— a conceptual advancement over Borges, highlighting media’s role in temporal exploitation.
In the Black Mirror episode “USS Callister” (Brooker, 2017), virtual reality serves as a stark example of media parasitising time and power. Protagonist Daly clones colleagues into a simulated Star Trek world, trapping them in eternal loops where time is manipulated for his god-like control. This digital medium feeds on the clones’ simulated temporal existence, distorting their identities into perpetual subjugation. Drawing on Turing’s imitation game (Turing, 1950), the episode critiques AI as a processing medium that imitates humanity, but the parasite model goes beyond by exposing how VR parasitises real-time labor (e.g., the clones’ suffering sustains Daly’s fantasy). Peters’s infrastructure of time is evident in the simulation’s timelessness, yet the model reveals power dynamics: media empires extract user time for profit, mirroring Innis’s space bias. Zylinska (2017) supports this, arguing AI-driven media create “nonhuman temporalities” that parasitise human perception, while Hassan (2009) notes how virtual environments compress time, fostering alienation. Thus, the model uniquely synthesises these texts, showing media’s parasitic evolution from myth to digital dystopia.
Broader Implications and Extensions
The temporal parasite model not only integrates course materials but offers fresh insights into contemporary media landscapes, such as AI and social platforms. By extending McLuhan, Innis, and Peters, it highlights how media’s parasitism on time exacerbates inequalities: for marginalised groups, temporal depletion (e.g., via gig economy apps) reinforces power asymmetries. Unlike remediation (Bolter and Grusin, 1999—not from course but relevant externally), which sees new media refashioning old, this model emphasises exploitative continuity. However, limitations exist; the metaphor may overlook media’s empowering aspects, such as time-saving tools, suggesting future refinements. Ultimately, recognising media as temporal parasites urges ethical redesigns, prioritising user temporal sovereignty.
Conclusion
This essay has proposed and applied the original model of media as temporal parasites, arguing that media distort time to sustain themselves, numbing identities and skewing power as seen in Ovid, Borges, and Black Mirror. By building on McLuhan, Innis, and Peters while incorporating external analyses from Zylinska, Crary, and Hassan, the model extends course discussions, revealing media’s exploitative core. Implications include a call for temporal awareness in media design, fostering healthier human-media relations. This framework, though provocative, invites further debate on media’s evolving parasitism in an accelerating world.
References
- Bolter, J. D. and Grusin, R. (1999) Remediation: Understanding New Media. MIT Press.
- Borges, J. L. (1942) ‘Funes the Memorious’, in Ficciones. Grove Press.
- Brooker, C. (2017) ‘USS Callister’, Black Mirror, Season 4, Episode 1. Netflix.
- Crary, J. (2013) 24/7: Late Capitalism and the Ends of Sleep. Verso Books.
- Hassan, R. (2009) Empires of Speed: Time and the Acceleration of Politics and Society. Brill.
- Innis, H. A. (1951) The Bias of Communication. University of Toronto Press.
- McLuhan, M. (1964) Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. McGraw-Hill.
- Ovid (2004) Metamorphoses. Translated by Raeburn, D. Penguin Classics. (Original work published 8 AD)
- Peters, J. D. (2015) The Marvelous Clouds: Toward a Philosophy of Elemental Media. University of Chicago Press.
- Turing, A. M. (1950) ‘Computing Machinery and Intelligence’, Mind, 59(236), pp. 433-460.
- Turkle, S. (2011) Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other. Basic Books.
- Zylinska, J. (2017) Nonhuman Photography. MIT Press.
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