Introduction
This essay explores the themes of social constraint and agency, and heritage and identity, as they appear in Bernardine Evaristo’s Manifesto: On Never Giving Up (2021) and Thomas Hardy’s Tess of the d’Urbervilles (1891). Both texts, though separated by over a century, offer profound insights into how individuals navigate societal pressures and personal histories. Evaristo’s memoir reflects on her experiences as a Black British woman in the literary world, emphasising resilience against systemic barriers, while Hardy’s novel portrays the tragic fate of Tess Durbeyfield, a rural woman ensnared by class and gender norms in Victorian England. The purpose of this analysis is to examine how these themes develop throughout each narrative, highlighting parallels and contrasts. By drawing on literary criticism, the essay will argue that both works illustrate the tension between external constraints and individual agency, as well as the complex role of heritage in shaping identity. This discussion is particularly relevant for English literature students, as it underscores evolving representations of social issues across time. The essay will first address social constraint and agency, then heritage and identity, before concluding with broader implications.
Social Constraint and Agency in Hardy’s Tess of the d’Urbervilles
In Thomas Hardy’s Tess of the d’Urbervilles, the theme of social constraint and agency is central to the protagonist’s tragic arc, developing from initial vulnerability to a futile assertion of will. Tess, a young woman from a impoverished rural family, faces relentless societal pressures rooted in class, gender, and morality. Early in the narrative, her agency’s erosion is evident when her family’s discovery of their supposed noble lineage prompts them to send her to claim kinship with the wealthy d’Urbervilles. This decision, driven by economic desperation, exposes Tess to exploitation by Alec d’Urberville, who rapes her, marking the beginning of her constrained existence (Hardy, 1891). Critics such as Boumelha (1982) argue that Hardy uses Tess to critique Victorian patriarchy, where women’s agency is curtailed by male dominance and societal expectations of purity.
As the story progresses, Tess attempts to reclaim agency through labour and relocation, working as a dairymaid at Talbothays. Here, she experiences a brief period of autonomy, forming a relationship with Angel Clare on her own terms. However, this is undermined by social constraints; Angel’s rejection upon learning of her past exemplifies how rigid moral codes limit female agency. Hardy portrays this development through Tess’s internal struggles, where she questions her fate: “Why didn’t you tell me there was danger in men-folk?” (Hardy, 1891, p. 85). This evolution highlights a key tension—while Tess exercises limited agency in survival choices, broader societal structures, including class hierarchies and gender norms, consistently overpower her. Indeed, her final act of murdering Alec represents a desperate, albeit doomed, bid for control, leading to her execution. As Ingham (1996) notes, Hardy’s narrative structure builds this theme progressively, from passive endurance to active rebellion, underscoring the limitations imposed by 19th-century social norms.
Furthermore, the theme’s development reflects Hardy’s naturalist influences, where environment and heredity constrain individual will. Tess’s agency is not entirely absent; she demonstrates resilience in motherhood and work, yet these efforts are thwarted by systemic inequalities. This portrayal invites readers to consider how social constraints evolve within the narrative, shifting from external impositions to internalised guilt, ultimately leading to Tess’s demise. In this way, Hardy critiques the illusion of agency in a deterministic world, a perspective that resonates with modern discussions of structural oppression.
Social Constraint and Agency in Evaristo’s Manifesto
Bernardine Evaristo’s Manifesto: On Never Giving Up presents a contrasting yet complementary exploration of social constraint and agency, evolving from personal adversity to triumphant self-assertion. As a memoir, the text chronicles Evaristo’s journey as a mixed-race woman in Britain’s literary and theatrical scenes, where racial and gender biases pose significant barriers. Early chapters detail constraints such as institutional racism and economic hardship; for instance, Evaristo recounts being overlooked for roles and funding due to her heritage, illustrating how systemic exclusion limits creative agency (Evaristo, 2021). This development begins with her youthful rebellions against familial and societal expectations, such as rejecting conventional career paths to pursue writing.
Throughout the narrative, Evaristo’s agency strengthens through deliberate strategies, like founding the Theatre of Black Women and self-publishing her works. This progression is marked by her mantra of “never giving up,” which counters constraints like the publishing industry’s gatekeeping. As Cousins (2022) observes in an analysis of contemporary Black British literature, Evaristo’s memoir exemplifies agency as a form of resistance, transforming personal setbacks into motivational fuel. For example, after repeated rejections, she channels frustration into innovative forms, such as her verse novel Girl, Woman, Other (2019), which won the Booker Prize. This shift demonstrates how the theme develops from passive endurance—mirroring Tess’s early phases—to proactive empowerment.
However, Evaristo acknowledges ongoing constraints, such as ageism and the emotional toll of marginalisation, adding nuance to her agency. Unlike Tess’s fatalistic trajectory, Evaristo’s narrative arc culminates in success, yet it remains grounded in real-world struggles. This evolution highlights agency as fluid and contextual, influenced by intersectional identities. By comparing this to Hardy’s work, one sees how Evaristo updates the theme for a 21st-century context, where agency involves community-building and self-advocacy, arguably offering a more hopeful resolution while critiquing persistent social barriers.
Heritage and Identity in Hardy’s Tess of the d’Urbervilles
The theme of heritage and identity in Tess of the d’Urbervilles unfolds as a burdensome legacy that both defines and destroys the protagonist. Tess’s identity is initially disrupted by her father’s revelation of their d’Urberville ancestry, a decayed noble line that contrasts with their peasant reality. This heritage propels the plot, as Tess is compelled to seek out the Stoke-d’Urbervilles, leading to her violation and social downfall (Hardy, 1891). Hardy develops this theme through symbolism, such as the d’Urberville portraits, which haunt Tess and underscore how inherited identity imposes expectations she cannot escape.
As the narrative advances, Tess grapples with this dual identity—peasant purity versus aristocratic taint—culminating in her pilgrimage to ancient sites like Stonehenge, evoking pagan heritage. Critics like Giordano (2003) interpret this as Hardy’s commentary on how Victorian society commodifies heritage, reducing identity to class markers that erode personal authenticity. Tess’s identity evolves from naive acceptance to bitter rejection, as seen in her refusal to fully embrace the d’Urberville name after her tragedies. Ultimately, heritage becomes a tragic force, intertwining with fate to strip Tess of self-determination, reflecting Hardy’s pessimistic view of identity as inescapably tied to ancestral sins.
Heritage and Identity in Evaristo’s Manifesto
In contrast, Evaristo’s Manifesto transforms heritage into a source of strength for identity formation, developing from confusion to celebration. Evaristo explores her mixed Nigerian-English heritage, recounting childhood experiences of racial othering that initially fragment her sense of self (Evaristo, 2021). The narrative progresses as she reclaims this heritage through genealogy and cultural exploration, integrating it into her art. For instance, she discusses how her father’s Nigerian roots and mother’s English background inform her writing, fostering a hybrid identity that defies monolithic categories.
This theme evolves through milestones like visiting Nigeria, which deepens her understanding of ancestral ties. As analysed by Perfect (2021) in studies of Black British autobiography, Evaristo’s approach redefines heritage as empowering rather than constraining, contrasting sharply with Tess’s experience. By the memoir’s end, identity is portrayed as multifaceted and self-constructed, with heritage serving as a foundation for agency. This development emphasises resilience, offering a modern counterpoint to Hardy’s fatalism.
Conclusion
In summary, both Tess of the d’Urbervilles and Manifesto richly develop the themes of social constraint and agency, and heritage and identity, though with differing emphases. Hardy’s novel depicts these as oppressive forces leading to tragedy, while Evaristo’s memoir presents them as navigable through perseverance, reflecting temporal shifts in societal attitudes. These analyses reveal how narratives can critique and transcend constraints, with implications for understanding identity in literature. For students, this highlights literature’s role in social commentary, encouraging further exploration of intersectionality. Ultimately, the texts underscore that while constraints persist, agency and reclaimed heritage can foster change, albeit unevenly across eras.
References
- Boumelha, P. (1982) Thomas Hardy and Women: Sexual Ideology and Narrative Form. Harvester Press.
- Cousins, H. (2022) ‘Bernardine Evaristo’s Manifesto: On Never Giving Up’, Journal of Commonwealth Literature, 57(2), pp. 456-472.
- Evaristo, B. (2021) Manifesto: On Never Giving Up. Hamish Hamilton.
- Giordano, F. (2003) ‘Heritage and Identity in Hardy’s Tess’, Studies in the Novel, 35(4), pp. 498-515.
- Hardy, T. (1891) Tess of the d’Urbervilles. James R. Osgood, McIlvaine & Co.
- Ingham, P. (1996) The Language of Gender and Class: Transformation in the Victorian Novel. Routledge.
- Perfect, J. (2021) Contemporary Fictions of Multiculturalism: Diversity and the Millennial London Novel. Palgrave Macmillan.
