Introduction
Executive Order 9066, issued by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on 19 February 1942, marked a pivotal moment in American history, authorising the forced relocation and internment of over 120,000 Japanese Americans during World War II. This policy, driven by wartime hysteria following the attack on Pearl Harbor, led to the establishment of internment camps across the United States, where individuals of Japanese descent—many of whom were U.S. citizens—were confined without due process. Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston’s memoir, Farewell to Manzanar (1973), co-authored with her husband James D. Houston, provides a personal account of these experiences, detailing the profound hardships faced by her family and others in the Manzanar camp. This essay, written from the perspective of a student exploring dual credit U.S. history, analyses the memoir to determine the most compromised American ideal under this order. Although some moments in Farewell to Manzanar hint at laissez-faire attitudes—such as limited government intervention in daily camp routines—the memoir ultimately highlights the forced relocation and confinement of Japanese Americans, alongside the loss of personal freedoms, therefore emphasising the lack of liberty as the most compromised ideal. Through a structured examination of historical context, key challenges depicted in the text, and analytical evaluation, this essay argues that liberty, a foundational American value enshrined in the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, was fundamentally undermined.
Historical Context of Executive Order 9066
To fully appreciate the compromises in American ideals as portrayed in Farewell to Manzanar, it is essential to understand the historical backdrop of Executive Order 9066. Issued in the wake of Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, the order empowered military commanders to designate “military areas” from which any persons could be excluded, ostensibly for national security reasons (Daniels, 1988). This led to the mass evacuation of Japanese Americans from the West Coast, regardless of citizenship status or loyalty. Official government reports, such as those from the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, later acknowledged that the policy was not justified by military necessity but rather by racial prejudice and war hysteria (Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, 1983). In the memoir, Wakatsuki Houston recounts how her family, like many others, was abruptly uprooted from their home in Ocean Park, California, and transported to Manzanar, a remote camp in the Owens Valley.
This context reveals a broader erosion of civil liberties, but the memoir specifically underscores how liberty—defined as freedom from arbitrary governmental restraint—was the most affected. For instance, the order bypassed constitutional protections against unreasonable seizures, as outlined in the Fourth Amendment. Daniels (1988) notes that no similar measures were taken against German or Italian Americans on a comparable scale, highlighting the discriminatory nature of the policy. As a history student, I find this disparity striking, as it contradicts the American ideal of equal protection under the law. Furthermore, the internment disrupted family structures and economic stability, setting the stage for the personal narratives in Farewell to Manzanar. While some aspects of camp life allowed for self-organisation, such as community gardens or recreational activities, these were superficial compared to the overarching loss of autonomy. Thus, the historical framework supports the thesis that liberty was profoundly compromised, as Japanese Americans were denied the freedom to live and work without unwarranted interference.
Challenges and Hardships in Farewell to Manzanar
Wakatsuki Houston’s memoir vividly illustrates the multifaceted challenges faced by Japanese Americans, with forced relocation and confinement emerging as central themes that directly assault the ideal of liberty. One key hardship was the abrupt displacement from homes and communities, which stripped individuals of their personal agency. For example, the author describes the chaos of evacuation day, where her family was given mere days to sell possessions and prepare for relocation, leading to significant financial losses (Houston and Houston, 1973). This evidence points to a loss of economic freedom, a component of liberty, as families were forced to liquidate assets at a fraction of their value. Reasoning from this, the government’s imposition of such relocations without evidence of disloyalty violated the principle of due process, arguably making it a direct attack on personal liberties enshrined in the Fifth Amendment.
A second piece of evidence from the memoir is the dehumanising conditions within Manzanar, such as overcrowded barracks and inadequate sanitation, which further eroded individual freedoms. Wakatsuki Houston recounts the lack of privacy in communal latrines and the constant surveillance by guards, creating an environment of perpetual confinement (Houston and Houston, 1973). This not only compromised physical liberty but also psychological well-being, as families struggled with the indignities of camp life. The reasoning here is that such conditions fostered a sense of imprisonment, contradicting the American promise of “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” Indeed, while the memoir hints at moments of laissez-faire—such as when internees were allowed to form their own schools or newspapers—these were overshadowed by the involuntary nature of the internment. Typically, in a free society, citizens expect protection from such arbitrary detentions, yet EO 9066 enabled a suspension of these norms, emphasising liberty’s compromise over other ideals like equality or justice, which, though affected, were secondary in the narrative’s focus on confinement.
From a critical perspective, the memoir also touches on intergenerational impacts, where the loss of liberty extended to cultural identity and family dynamics. Wakatsuki Houston reflects on her father’s arrest and subsequent decline, attributing it to the emasculation caused by internment (Houston and Houston, 1973). This personal anecdote underscores how liberty’s absence led to broader social fractures. However, the text’s emphasis remains on the immediate denial of freedom, rather than long-term equality issues, aligning with the thesis.
Analysis of Compromised American Ideals
Delving deeper into the analysis, Farewell to Manzanar positions liberty as the most compromised ideal through its portrayal of lost personal freedoms, even as it acknowledges fleeting instances of autonomy. Evidence from the text includes the author’s description of loyalty questionnaires, which forced internees to declare allegiance under duress, effectively coercing them into potential military service or renunciation of citizenship (Houston and Houston, 1973). This compromised the freedom of conscience, a core aspect of liberty. Reasoning logically, such measures created divisions within the community, as seen in the “yes-yes” versus “no-no” respondents, highlighting how government overreach stifled individual choice. Furthermore, the memoir details recreational restrictions, such as curfews and limited movement outside the camp, which prevented pursuits like education or employment (Houston and Houston, 1973). The reasoning is that these constraints not only halted personal development but also contradicted laissez-faire economic principles, though the narrative prioritises the overarching theme of confinement over economic laissez-faire hints.
In evaluating perspectives, some historians argue that equality was equally compromised due to racial targeting (Robinson, 2001). However, the memoir’s focus on personal stories of relocation and internment suggests liberty’s primacy. For instance, while racial discrimination underpinned the order, the daily realities depicted—such as barbed-wire fences and armed guards—symbolise a direct assault on freedom. As a student, I recognise the limitations of relying solely on one memoir; broader sources confirm that over 70% of internees were American citizens, amplifying the liberty violation (Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, 1983). Arguably, this makes liberty the most evident compromise, as it encompassed losses in movement, expression, and autonomy. Generally, American ideals interlink, but the thesis holds that liberty’s erosion was most pronounced, with the memoir using vivid anecdotes to illustrate this over subtler themes.
Conclusion
In summary, Farewell to Manzanar by Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston powerfully conveys the hardships inflicted by Executive Order 9066, with forced relocation, confinement, and the loss of personal freedoms underscoring the profound compromise of liberty as an American ideal. Through historical context, detailed challenges, and analytical evaluation, this essay has demonstrated that while hints of laissez-faire existed in camp routines, they paled against the overarching denial of autonomy. The implications are significant for U.S. history studies, reminding us of the fragility of civil liberties during crises and the need for vigilance against discriminatory policies. As a student, reflecting on this topic highlights how such events challenge the nation’s foundational values, urging contemporary society to learn from past injustices to safeguard liberty for all.
(Word count: 1,248, including references)
References
- Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (1983) Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians. National Archives.
- Daniels, R. (1988) Concentration Camps USA: Japanese Americans and World War II. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
- Houston, J.W. and Houston, J.D. (1973) Farewell to Manzanar: A True Story of Japanese American Experience During and After the World War II Internment. Houghton Mifflin.
- Robinson, G. (2001) By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans. Harvard University Press.
