Introduction
This essay explores the linguistic encoding of irrealis—modes that express non-factual, hypothetical, or counterfactual situations—in Spanish and Portuguese, with a specific focus on how these structures can impact German native speakers learning Portuguese as a foreign language. Irrealis, as defined by Portner (2009), encompasses a range of meanings including possibilities, desires, and imagined scenarios, often marked through grammatical moods like the subjunctive. While Spanish and Portuguese share typological similarities as Romance languages, subtle differences in their irrealis systems can pose both opportunities and challenges for learners. This paper addresses three central research questions: How is irrealis expressed in Portuguese? Which Spanish irrealis constructions can serve as bridge structures for learners? And where do similarities between Spanish and Portuguese facilitate learning, and where do they lead to interference? By examining these questions, the essay aims to provide a clear understanding of the grammatical frameworks involved and their pedagogical implications, supported by academic literature and examples.
Expression of Irrealis in Portuguese
In Portuguese, irrealis is predominantly expressed through a well-developed subjunctive mood system, which includes forms like the present subjunctive, imperfect subjunctive, and future subjunctive. These forms are used to convey doubt, uncertainty, wishes, or hypothetical scenarios. For instance, in a sentence like “Espero que ele venha amanhã” (I hope he comes tomorrow), the present subjunctive “venha” signals the speaker’s uncertainty about the event (Mateus et al., 2003). Additionally, the future subjunctive, unique to Portuguese among Romance languages, is often employed in conditional clauses, as in “Se ele vier, avisarei” (If he comes, I will let you know). This form has no direct equivalent in Spanish, marking a significant point of divergence.
The subjunctive in Portuguese is triggered by specific conjunctions (e.g., “que,” “para que”) and verbs expressing desire, emotion, or doubt. However, its usage is often nuanced; for example, the choice between imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive in counterfactuals can reflect subtle distinctions in time or aspect. According to Mateus et al. (2003), mastery of these forms requires an understanding of both syntax and pragmatics, posing a challenge for learners unfamiliar with such a system, including German speakers whose native language relies on modal verbs and the Konjunktiv II for similar purposes (Diewald, 1999). Therefore, while Portuguese offers a rich grammatical apparatus for irrealis, its complexity can be daunting without appropriate linguistic scaffolding.
Spanish Irrealis Constructions as Bridge Structures
Spanish, like Portuguese, heavily utilises the subjunctive mood to encode irrealis, making it a potential bridge language (*Brückensprache*) for German learners of Portuguese. The Spanish subjunctive system includes the present and imperfect subjunctive, used similarly in contexts of doubt, desire, or hypothesis. For example, “Espero que venga mañana” (I hope he comes tomorrow) mirrors the Portuguese structure almost exactly, providing a familiar framework for learners (Butt & Benjamin, 2013). This overlap can facilitate learning by allowing German speakers to transfer knowledge of Spanish subjunctive forms to Portuguese, especially in the early stages of acquisition.
Moreover, Spanish lacks the future subjunctive, instead relying on the present subjunctive or conditional structures in equivalent contexts, which can prepare learners for understanding alternative ways of expressing futurity in irrealis contexts. Generally, the typological closeness between Spanish and Portuguese—evident in shared vocabulary and grammatical patterns—reduces the cognitive load for learners. Indeed, research by Montrul (2008) suggests that learners of a Romance language often exhibit positive transfer when acquiring another, particularly with moods like the subjunctive. However, while Spanish can serve as a helpful steppingstone, it is not without limitations, as subtle differences may lead to confusion, as discussed in the following section.
Facilitation and Interference in Learning Portuguese via Spanish
The similarities between Spanish and Portuguese irrealis systems can significantly facilitate learning for German speakers. Lexical overlap (e.g., Spanish “esperar” and Portuguese “esperar” for “to hope”) and syntactic parallels in subjunctive usage provide familiar anchors. For example, both languages use the subjunctive after expressions of doubt, such as “No creo que…” (Spanish) and “Não acredito que…” (Portuguese), meaning “I don’t believe that…”. This consistency allows learners to apply rules learned in Spanish directly to Portuguese, fostering quicker comprehension (Montrul, 2008).
However, these similarities can also mask critical differences, leading to negative transfer or interference. One prominent area of divergence is the use of the future subjunctive in Portuguese, absent in Spanish. A Spanish speaker might incorrectly substitute a present subjunctive or conditional form in Portuguese contexts requiring the future subjunctive, as in the earlier example “Se ele vier” (If he comes). Furthermore, Portuguese often employs the personal infinitive—a structure allowing infinitives to take subjects—in irrealis contexts, such as “Para eles chegarem a tempo” (For them to arrive on time), which has no direct equivalent in Spanish (Mateus et al., 2003). A learner familiar with Spanish might struggle with this construction, over-relying on subjunctive forms instead.
Additionally, subtle semantic differences in trigger verbs and conjunctions can cause errors. For instance, certain verbs in Portuguese require the subjunctive where Spanish might use the indicative, leading to potential misapplication by learners accustomed to Spanish norms (Butt & Benjamin, 2013). Thus, while Spanish offers a valuable bridge, it can also introduce interference if learners are not guided to recognise and address these divergences.
Pedagogical Implications for German Learners
For German native speakers, whose language predominantly uses modal verbs and *Konjunktiv II* to encode irrealis, the subjunctive-heavy systems of Spanish and Portuguese represent a significant shift (Diewald, 1999). Spanish can act as an effective intermediary by introducing learners to Romance mood systems in a slightly less complex form before tackling Portuguese’s additional features, such as the future subjunctive. However, educators must explicitly highlight differences to prevent overgeneralisation. For instance, targeted exercises contrasting Spanish and Portuguese subjunctive usage in conditional clauses could help learners internalise unique structures.
Moreover, fostering metalinguistic awareness—encouraging learners to reflect on grammatical rules across languages—can mitigate interference. By comparing how irrealis is expressed in German, Spanish, and Portuguese, students can better grasp the conceptual underpinnings of mood and modality (Montrul, 2008). Such an approach addresses the complex problem of cross-linguistic influence while drawing on existing resources in the learner’s linguistic repertoire.
Conclusion
In summary, this essay has examined the expression of irrealis in Portuguese and Spanish, highlighting their relevance for German learners of Portuguese. Portuguese employs a sophisticated subjunctive system, including the unique future subjunctive, while Spanish offers comparable but simpler structures that can serve as a bridge for learning. While similarities between the two Romance languages facilitate acquisition by providing familiar grammatical and lexical cues, differences—such as the absence of the future subjunctive in Spanish and the presence of the personal infinitive in Portuguese—can lead to interference if not addressed. Pedagogically, leveraging Spanish as a *Brückensprache* while explicitly teaching divergences can enhance learning outcomes for German speakers. Ultimately, understanding these linguistic nuances not only aids language acquisition but also deepens appreciation of the diversity within Romance language systems, underscoring the importance of tailored instructional strategies in multilingual contexts.
References
- Butt, J. and Benjamin, C. (2013) A New Reference Grammar of Modern Spanish. 5th ed. Routledge.
- Diewald, G. (1999) Die Modalverben im Deutschen: Grammatikalisierung und Polyfunktionalität. Max Niemeyer Verlag.
- Mateus, M. H. M., Brito, A. M., Duarte, I., and Faria, I. H. (2003) Gramática da Língua Portuguesa. 5th ed. Editorial Caminho.
- Montrul, S. (2008) Incomplete Acquisition in Bilingualism: Re-examining the Age Factor. John Benjamins Publishing.
- Portner, P. (2009) Modality. Oxford University Press.
