Introduction
The period from 1968 to 1983 in Western Europe is often characterised by significant social, political, and economic upheavals that challenged the post-war consensus of stability and prosperity. Social peace, in this context, refers to the relative harmony within societies, encompassing low levels of violent conflict, stable labour relations, and minimal disruption from protest movements (Judt, 2005). This essay examines the extent to which Western Europe faced a crisis in this regard, drawing on key events such as the 1968 student revolts, the rise of terrorism in the 1970s, and economic downturns that fuelled labour unrest. While there was indeed widespread unrest—arguably signalling a crisis in several countries—the response varied by nation, and social structures generally withstood collapse. The analysis will argue that a crisis existed to a moderate extent, informed by economic pressures and ideological shifts, but it was not universal or insurmountable. This perspective is grounded in historical scholarship, highlighting both the disruptions and the resilience of democratic institutions.
The Student Revolts of 1968 and the Erosion of Post-War Consensus
The year 1968 marked a pivotal moment in Western European history, with widespread student protests that disrupted social peace across multiple countries. In France, the May 1968 events began as university demonstrations against outdated education systems but escalated into a nationwide crisis involving workers’ strikes and factory occupations, bringing the country to a standstill (Ross, 2002). Over 10 million workers participated in what became the largest general strike in French history, challenging President de Gaulle’s authority and exposing deep generational divides. Similarly, in West Germany, the student movement, influenced by anti-Vietnam War sentiments and critiques of authoritarianism, led to violent clashes with police, such as during the protests against the Shah of Iran’s visit in 1967, which spilled into 1968 (Thomas, 2003). These events reflected a broader rejection of the post-war economic miracle, or Wirtschaftswunder, as young people demanded greater freedoms and social reforms.
Arguably, this wave of unrest indicated a crisis of social peace, as it transcended mere protest into potential revolutionary action. In Italy, the ‘Hot Autumn’ of 1969 extended the 1968 spirit, with labour strikes and student occupations highlighting inequalities in industrial societies (Lumley, 1990). However, the crisis was not absolute; governments responded with reforms, such as educational expansions in France and Germany, which mitigated long-term instability. Furthermore, while these revolts disrupted daily life—indeed, leading to economic losses and temporary breakdowns in public order—they did not result in systemic collapse, suggesting the crisis was more a symptom of evolving social demands than a total breakdown.
Terrorism and Political Violence in the 1970s
The 1970s saw an intensification of political violence, further straining social peace in Western Europe. In Italy, the Red Brigades, a left-wing terrorist group, conducted kidnappings and assassinations, culminating in the 1978 abduction and murder of former Prime Minister Aldo Moro (Drake, 1995). This period, known as the ‘Years of Lead,’ involved over 14,000 terrorist acts between 1969 and 1987, creating an atmosphere of fear and instability that eroded public trust in institutions. In West Germany, the Red Army Faction (RAF) engaged in bombings and hijackings, such as the 1977 ‘German Autumn’ crisis, which included the kidnapping of Hanns Martin Schleyer and the hijacking of a Lufthansa flight (Varon, 2004). These actions stemmed from the radicalisation of 1968 protesters, who viewed the state as fascist remnants.
In the United Kingdom, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) escalated its campaign with bombings in England, including the 1974 Birmingham pub attacks that killed 21 people, exacerbating sectarian tensions and challenging social cohesion (English, 2003). Such violence undoubtedly constituted a crisis, as it led to states of emergency, increased policing, and, in some cases, curtailments of civil liberties— for instance, Germany’s Berufsverbot policy banning radicals from public jobs. Yet, the extent of this crisis can be qualified; terrorist groups remained marginal, lacking broad support, and democratic responses, such as Italy’s anti-terrorism laws, eventually dismantled them by the early 1980s. Therefore, while terrorism disrupted social peace, it was contained within resilient frameworks, preventing a broader societal implosion.
Economic Challenges and Labour Unrest
Economic difficulties in the 1970s compounded social tensions, fostering labour unrest that tested the limits of social peace. The 1973 oil crisis, triggered by the Yom Kippur War, quadrupled oil prices, leading to stagflation—high inflation combined with unemployment—across Western Europe (Eichengreen, 2007). In Britain, this manifested in the 1973-74 miners’ strikes and the subsequent three-day workweek, which paralysed industry and led to the fall of Edward Heath’s government (Sandbrook, 2010). Unemployment rose sharply, reaching over 1 million by 1975, fuelling discontent and strikes that disrupted essential services.
In France, economic woes intersected with social movements, such as the 1976-77 steelworkers’ protests in Lorraine, reflecting deindustrialisation’s impact (Reid, 1985). Typically, these events highlighted a crisis, as they revealed fractures in the welfare state model, with rising inequality and youth disillusionment. However, the response was not uniform; Scandinavian countries like Sweden maintained relative stability through strong social democratic policies, suggesting that economic pressures did not inevitably lead to crisis everywhere (Esping-Andersen, 1990). Moreover, by 1983, with the onset of recovery in some regions, labour unrest began to wane, indicating that the crisis was temporally bounded rather than existential.
Variations Across Western Europe and Broader Implications
The crisis of social peace was not monolithic, varying significantly by country and context. In Southern Europe, nations like Spain and Portugal, transitioning from dictatorships in the mid-1970s, faced additional instability from political reforms, though their unrest was more about democratisation than a direct extension of 1968 (Linz and Stepan, 1996). Northern Europe, conversely, experienced milder disruptions, with the Netherlands seeing cultural shifts through the Provo movement but avoiding widespread violence (Kennedy, 1995). This variability underscores that while a crisis existed—evident in the convergence of protests, terrorism, and economic strife—it was moderated by national institutions and international factors, such as NATO alliances that bolstered security.
Critically, the period prompted reforms that arguably strengthened social peace in the long term, including expanded welfare and gender equality laws. However, limitations in the evidence, such as the focus on urban centres in historical accounts, may underrepresent rural stability, highlighting the need for nuanced interpretation.
Conclusion
In summary, Western Europe experienced a crisis of social peace to a considerable extent between 1968 and 1983, driven by student revolts, terrorism, and economic turmoil that challenged post-war stability. Key examples from France, Germany, Italy, and the UK illustrate widespread disruption, yet the crisis was not total, as democratic resilience and reforms prevented collapse. The implications are significant: this era marked a transition from consensus to contestation, influencing modern European politics by fostering greater pluralism while exposing vulnerabilities to ideological extremism. Ultimately, while social peace was strained, it endured, reflecting the adaptability of Western societies.
References
- Drake, R. (1995) The Revolutionary Mystique and Terrorism in Contemporary Italy. Indiana University Press.
- Eichengreen, B. (2007) The European Economy Since 1945: Coordinated Capitalism and Beyond. Princeton University Press.
- English, R. (2003) Armed Struggle: The History of the IRA. Macmillan.
- Esping-Andersen, G. (1990) The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Polity Press.
- Judt, T. (2005) Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945. Penguin.
- Kennedy, J. C. (1995) Nieuw Babylon in Aanbouw: Nederland in de Jaren Zestig. Boom.
- Linz, J. J. and Stepan, A. (1996) Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe. Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Lumley, R. (1990) States of Emergency: Cultures of Revolt in Italy from 1968 to 1978. Verso.
- Reid, D. (1985) The Decline of Saint Monday: Working-Class Holidays in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century France. Journal of Social History, 18(4), pp. 581-599.
- Ross, K. (2002) May ’68 and Its Afterlives. University of Chicago Press.
- Sandbrook, D. (2010) State of Emergency: The Way We Were: Britain, 1970-1974. Allen Lane.
- Thomas, N. (2003) Protest Movements in 1960s West Germany: A Social History of Dissent and Democracy. Berg.
- Varon, J. (2004) Bringing the War Home: The Weather Underground, the Red Army Faction, and Revolutionary Violence in the Sixties and Seventies. University of California Press.
