Introduction
The Bronze Age Collapse, occurring around 1200–1100 BCE, represents one of the most dramatic periods of societal disruption in the ancient world. This era witnessed the rapid decline of major civilisations across the eastern Mediterranean and Near East, including the Hittite Empire, Mycenaean Greece, and various Canaanite city-states. While New Kingdom Egypt endured this tumultuous period with comparative resilience, it was not immune to the broader destabilising forces at play. This literature review examines the impact of the Bronze Age Collapse on New Kingdom Egypt and the wider Near East, exploring the causes and consequences of this transformative event. By drawing on scholarly interpretations, the essay investigates the interplay of environmental, economic, and socio-political factors, and evaluates the differential impacts across regions. Key points of focus include Egypt’s relative stability under the later Ramesside rulers, the collapse of other Near Eastern powers, and the long-term implications for cultural and political landscapes.
Contextualising the Bronze Age Collapse
The Bronze Age Collapse is generally understood as a systemic breakdown of interconnected civilisations in the eastern Mediterranean and Near East at the end of the Late Bronze Age. Scholars such as Cline (2014) argue that this was not a singular event but a complex process involving multiple stressors. Climate change, evidenced by prolonged drought and reduced agricultural yields, likely exacerbated resource scarcity across the region (Kaniewski et al., 2013). Additionally, economic disruptions, including the breakdown of international trade networks reliant on tin and copper for bronze production, undermined state economies. The widespread appearance of the so-called ‘Sea Peoples’—groups of migrating or marauding populations—further destabilised polities through invasions and warfare (Sandars, 1987). While no single factor can account for the collapse, the cumulative effect of these pressures created a domino effect, toppling even the most entrenched powers. For the Near East, the collapse marked the end of an era of imperial dominance and ushered in a period often termed the ‘Dark Ages’ before the rise of Iron Age societies.
Impact on New Kingdom Egypt
New Kingdom Egypt (c. 1550–1070 BCE), under the 19th and 20th Dynasties, demonstrated notable resilience during the Bronze Age Collapse compared to its contemporaries. Scholars such as Redford (1992) attribute this to Egypt’s geographical isolation and centralised political structure, which provided a buffer against external threats. However, the kingdom was not entirely unaffected. Ramesses III (r. 1186–1155 BCE) famously recorded battles against the Sea Peoples in inscriptions at Medinet Habu, describing multiple Waves of invasions around 1177 BCE (Redford, 1992). While Egypt repelled these attackers, the conflicts strained military and economic resources. Furthermore, internal challenges, including labour strikes, corruption, and succession crises during the later Ramesside period, suggest that the collapse’s broader destabilising effects permeated even this relatively stable polity (Trigger et al., 1983).
Arguably, Egypt’s survival rested on its ability to adapt. The state maintained control over vital grain production along the Nile, which insulated it from the worst effects of regional famine. Additionally, Egypt’s religious and ideological framework, centred on the divine kingship of the pharaoh, may have reinforced social cohesion during crises (Kemp, 2006). Nevertheless, the cumulative pressures of the collapse marked the beginning of a gradual decline, with the end of the New Kingdom by 1070 BCE transitioning into the fragmented Third Intermediate Period. Therefore, while Egypt avoided total collapse, the era fundamentally altered its trajectory, reducing its status as a dominant imperial power.
Impact on the Wider Near East
In contrast to Egypt’s comparative endurance, much of the Near East suffered catastrophic decline during the Bronze Age Collapse. The Hittite Empire, a major power in Anatolia, disintegrated around 1200 BCE, likely due to a combination of internal strife, invasions by the Sea Peoples, and the loss of key trade routes (Bryce, 2005). Similarly, the Mycenaean palace economies of Greece collapsed, with evidence of widespread destruction at sites such as Pylos and Mycenae (Cline, 2014). In the Levant, city-states like Ugarit and Alalakh were abandoned or destroyed, marking the end of a sophisticated scribal culture and international diplomacy, as evidenced by the cessation of diplomatic correspondence preserved in the Amarna Letters (Moran, 1992).
The collapse in the Near East was not merely a political or military failure but a profound socio-economic transformation. The breakdown of trade networks, particularly those supplying tin for bronze, forced communities to adapt to local resources and eventually transition to iron technologies, heralding the Iron Age (Waldbaum, 1978). Moreover, the power vacuum left by the fall of empires allowed for the emergence of smaller, decentralised polities, such as the Neo-Hittite states and the Phoenician city-states, which played a significant role in cultural continuity and innovation (Bryce, 2005). Indeed, while the immediate aftermath of the collapse was marked by destruction and depopulation, it also sowed the seeds for new societal structures in the long term.
Comparative Analysis and Long-Term Implications
A comparative analysis of Egypt and the wider Near East reveals the uneven impact of the Bronze Age Collapse. Egypt’s survival can be attributed to its unique geographical and political advantages, whereas the Hittite and Mycenaean states, more dependent on external trade and alliances, succumbed to systemic vulnerabilities. However, as Cline (2014) notes, even Egypt could not escape the broader consequences of a region-wide crisis, with economic strain and military overextension foreshadowing its later decline. This suggests that interconnectedness, while a strength in stable times, became a liability during systemic collapse.
The long-term implications of this period are significant. The transition from Bronze to Iron Age technologies reshaped economic and military paradigms across the Near East (Waldbaum, 1978). Furthermore, the cultural and demographic shifts, including the migrations of the Sea Peoples—some of whom likely settled as the Philistines in the Levant—altered the region’s ethnic and political landscape (Sandars, 1987). For Egypt, the loss of imperial dominance marked a turning point, though its cultural legacy endured through subsequent periods of renewal and foreign rule (Kemp, 2006). Generally, the collapse illustrates the fragility of complex societies in the face of multi-faceted crises, a theme with resonance in contemporary discussions of systemic risk.
Conclusion
In summary, the Bronze Age Collapse profoundly impacted both New Kingdom Egypt and the wider Near East, though the extent and nature of this impact varied significantly. Egypt, buoyed by geographical and ideological strengths, weathered the storm longer than most, yet still experienced economic and political strain that heralded its eventual decline. In contrast, other Near Eastern polities, such as the Hittite Empire and Mycenaean Greece, collapsed under the weight of environmental, economic, and military pressures. The literature highlights the complexity of this period, with no single cause fully explaining the collapse, but rather a confluence of factors creating a cascading failure. The long-term consequences, including the rise of iron technologies and new political entities, underscore the transformative nature of this crisis. This review thus emphasises the importance of understanding systemic vulnerabilities in historical contexts, offering insights into how ancient societies navigated profound disruption—a topic that remains relevant for modern studies of resilience and collapse.
References
- Bryce, T. (2005) The Kingdom of the Hittites. Oxford University Press.
- Cline, E. H. (2014) 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed. Princeton University Press.
- Kaniewski, D., Van Campo, E., Guiot, J., Le Burel, S., Otto, T., and Baeteman, C. (2013) Environmental Roots of the Late Bronze Age Crisis. PLoS ONE, 8(8), e71004.
- Kemp, B. J. (2006) Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization. Routledge.
- Moran, W. L. (1992) The Amarna Letters. Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Redford, D. B. (1992) Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton University Press.
- Sandars, N. K. (1987) The Sea Peoples: Warriors of the Ancient Mediterranean. Thames & Hudson.
- Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B. J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. (1983) Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press.
- Waldbaum, J. C. (1978) From Bronze to Iron: The Transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean. Paul Åströms Förlag.
