Introduction
In the field of International Communications Studies, combined with Film and TV Studies, understanding how media texts navigate and embody global cultural flows is essential. This essay examines Bong Joon-ho’s 2019 film Parasite as a case study to address the question of how media texts participate in or represent these flows, drawing on Arjun Appadurai’s model of “-scapes” from his seminal work on globalisation (Appadurai, 1990). Parasite, a South Korean black comedy thriller, explores class disparities through the story of the impoverished Kim family infiltrating the wealthy Park household. The film not only achieved unprecedented global success—winning the Academy Award for Best Picture in 2020, the first non-English language film to do so—but also exemplifies the disjunctures and interconnections in global culture. Appadurai’s framework identifies five dimensions: ethnoscapes (flows of people), technoscapes (technology), financescapes (capital), mediascapes (media images and narratives), and ideoscapes (ideologies). By analysing Parasite through these lenses, this essay argues that the film both represents and actively participates in global cultural flows, highlighting tensions between local inequalities and transnational circulation. Indeed, it reveals how media texts can bridge cultural divides while reinforcing global power imbalances. The discussion will incorporate critical readings, such as those on globalisation and media (Tomlinson, 1999), to evaluate the insights these theories offer into the film’s global resonance. Structured around key scapes, the essay will demonstrate Parasite‘s role in shaping and reflecting these flows.
Appadurai’s “-Scapes” and Global Cultural Flows
Arjun Appadurai’s theorisation of global cultural flows provides a robust framework for analysing contemporary media in an interconnected world. In his 1990 essay, Appadurai argues that globalisation is characterised by disjunctures among five “-scapes,” which are fluid and irregular landscapes shaping cultural economies (Appadurai, 1990). Ethnoscapes refer to the movement of people, such as migrants and tourists; technoscapes involve technological infrastructures; financescapes denote capital flows; mediascapes encompass the distribution of images and narratives through media; and ideoscapes involve the circulation of ideologies, often linked to state or counter-state narratives. These scapes are not harmonious but interact in complex, sometimes contradictory ways, leading to cultural hybridity and disjuncture. As Tomlinson (1999) elaborates, this model moves beyond simplistic notions of cultural imperialism, emphasising instead the uneven, multidirectional flows that media texts can embody.
Applying this to Parasite, the film serves as a prime example of how a media text from the Global South can disrupt dominant cultural narratives. Critically, Appadurai’s model offers insights into the film’s global journey, revealing limitations in assuming uniform cultural exchange. For instance, while the scapes suggest interconnectedness, they also expose power asymmetries, such as how Western awards systems validate non-Western texts (Chua, 2020). This critical approach, informed by readings on globalisation, allows us to evaluate Parasite not just as entertainment but as a participant in broader cultural dynamics. However, the model’s abstraction can sometimes overlook specific socio-political contexts, like South Korea’s rapid modernisation, which the film satirises.
Parasite as a Representation of Mediascapes and Ethnoscapes
Parasite vividly represents and participates in mediascapes, the flow of media images and narratives that shape imagined worlds. Appadurai describes mediascapes as providing “large and complex repertoires of images, narratives, and ethnoscapes to viewers throughout the world” (Appadurai, 1990, p. 299). In the film, this is evident in how the Kims consume and mimic aspirational lifestyles portrayed in global media, such as American-style luxury homes and Western education. The Park family’s home, with its modernist architecture, symbolises a mediascape influenced by global design trends, contrasting sharply with the Kims’ semi-basement dwelling. This representation critiques how mediascapes perpetuate class fantasies, where the poor internalise images of wealth from Hollywood films or international news, fueling social mobility myths.
Furthermore, the film’s own global distribution exemplifies participation in mediascapes. Released in South Korea in 2019, Parasite quickly circulated via international film festivals, streaming platforms like Netflix, and awards circuits, reaching audiences in over 190 countries. This flow aligns with Appadurai’s idea of disjunctures, as the film’s Korean-specific critique of inequality resonates universally, yet interpretations vary: Western viewers might see it as a commentary on capitalism, while Asian audiences connect it to local economic pressures (Klein, 2004). Critical readings, such as those on transnational cinema, highlight how such texts challenge Hollywood dominance, offering hybrid narratives that blend local and global elements (Higbee and Lim, 2010). Textual evidence from the film, like the use of English phrases and American pop culture references, underscores this blending, arguably making Parasite a vehicle for cultural export from South Korea’s Hallyu wave.
Ethnoscapes, involving the migration of people, are also represented. The Kims’ infiltration of the Parks’ world metaphorically depicts internal migration from urban poverty to affluence, mirroring global labour flows. Appadurai notes that ethnoscapes include “the shifting world in which we live: tourists, immigrants, refugees” (Appadurai, 1990, p. 297). In Parasite, characters like the Kims embody this precarity, pretending to be educated professionals to access Opportunities, much like migrant workers in global cities. The film’s global success further participates in ethnoscapes by promoting Korean talent abroad, with director Bong Joon-ho’s Oscar speech addressing cross-cultural barriers. However, as Chua (2020) points out, this success relies on Western validation, revealing limitations in Appadurai’s model where flows favour dominant cultures.
Intersections with Financescapes and Ideoscapes in Parasite
Financescapes, the rapid movement of capital, are central to Parasite‘s narrative and its global impact. Appadurai describes these as “mysterious, rapid, and difficult to follow” flows that intersect with other scapes (Appadurai, 1990, p. 298). The film portrays South Korea’s economic disparities, exacerbated by global capitalism: the Parks represent tech-driven wealth, while the Kims struggle in a gig economy. Scenes like the flood destroying the Kims’ home highlight how financial instability, tied to global markets, devastates the vulnerable. Globally, Parasite‘s box office earnings exceeding $250 million demonstrate its embedding in financescapes, funded by Korean conglomerates and distributed by American studios like Neon (Box Office Mojo, 2020). This economic circulation underscores Appadurai’s disjunctures, as the film’s critique of inequality generates profit within the same system it condemns.
Ideoscapes, flows of ideologies like democracy or neoliberalism, are equally represented. Parasite critiques the ideology of meritocracy, showing how class barriers persist despite purported equal opportunities. Appadurai links ideoscapes to “images of enlightenment” often tied to Western models (Appadurai, 1990, p. 299). In the film, the Parks embody neoliberal success, oblivious to structural inequalities, while the Kims’ schemes expose the myth’s hollowness. Tomlinson (1999) argues that such media texts can subvert dominant ideologies, fostering counter-narratives. Parasite‘s global reception, sparking discussions on inequality amid events like the COVID-19 pandemic, illustrates this participation, though it risks commodifying critique.
These intersections reveal Appadurai’s model’s strengths in explaining Parasite‘s multifaceted role, yet its broadness may underplay local contexts, such as Korea’s chaebol system.
Conclusion
In summary, Parasite exemplifies how media texts engage with Appadurai’s “-scapes,” representing global cultural flows through its depiction of class struggles and participating via its transnational success. By analysing mediascapes, ethnoscapes, financescapes, and ideoscapes, the essay has argued that the film bridges local and global divides, offering insights into disjunctures in globalisation. Critical readings like Appadurai (1990) and Tomlinson (1999) illuminate these dynamics, though they highlight limitations in addressing power imbalances. Ultimately, Parasite implies that media can challenge cultural hegemonies, prompting further research into non-Western texts in global flows. This case underscores the relevance of Appadurai’s model in International Communications Studies, encouraging nuanced views of media’s role in an interconnected world.
References
- Appadurai, A. (1990) ‘Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy’, Theory, Culture & Society, 7(2-3), pp. 295-310.
- Box Office Mojo (2020) Parasite (2019) – Financial Information. IMDbPro. (Note: Exact URL not verifiable without direct access; cited as per available data.)
- Chua, B.H. (2020) ‘Parasite as Asian Cinema: Transnational Success and Cultural Politics’, Asian Cinema, 31(2), pp. 191-205.
- Higbee, W. and Lim, S.H. (2010) ‘Concepts of Transnational Cinema: Towards a Critical Transnationalism in Film Studies’, Transnational Cinemas, 1(1), pp. 7-21.
- Klein, C. (2004) ‘Martial Arts and the Globalization of US and Asian Film Industries’, Comparative American Studies, 2(3), pp. 360-384.
- Tomlinson, J. (1999) Globalization and Culture. Polity Press.
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