The surge in anti-Asian hate crimes during the COVID-19 pandemic has starkly illuminated longstanding prejudices embedded in American society, with incidents rising by over 300% in major cities like New York and Los Angeles between 2019 and 2020 (Center for the Study of Hate and Extremism, 2021). This resurgence echoes historical patterns of discrimination, particularly against Chinese immigrants in the 19th century, who faced exclusionary laws and stereotypes that portrayed them as perpetual foreigners. In this essay, I explore these connections through a literary lens, focusing on how such hate has evolved from the era of the Chinese Exclusion Act to contemporary times, while examining Theodore Roosevelt’s writings on the American Dream as a contrasting ideal. By analyzing Edith Eaton’s (Sui Sin Far) short story collection Mrs. Spring Fragrance (1912), I argue that Asian American literature reveals the persistent tension between assimilation and exclusion, challenging stereotypes and highlighting the human cost of xenophobia. This analysis draws on historical contexts and literary evidence to demonstrate how these themes persist, offering insights into the American immigrant experience. Ultimately, the essay posits that understanding these historical and literary narratives is crucial for addressing ongoing racial injustices. Through this exploration, I aim to underscore the relevance of American literature in critiquing societal flaws and envisioning a more inclusive future.
The Chinese Exclusion Act: Background and History
The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 stands as a pivotal moment in American immigration history, representing the first federal law to restrict immigration based on nationality and race. Enacted amid economic anxieties in the post-Gold Rush era, the Act prohibited Chinese laborers from entering the United States and denied naturalization rights to those already present, effectively institutionalizing anti-Chinese sentiment (Lee, 2003). This legislation emerged from a backdrop of rapid Chinese immigration during the mid-1800s, when approximately 300,000 Chinese workers arrived to contribute to projects like the Transcontinental Railroad, only to face scapegoating for economic downturns in the 1870s. Labor unions and politicians, particularly in California, fueled campaigns portraying Chinese immigrants as unfair competition, leading to violent pogroms such as the 1871 Los Angeles Chinese Massacre, where 18 Chinese were lynched (Zesch, 2012). The Act was renewed and expanded in subsequent decades, including the 1892 Geary Act, which required Chinese residents to carry identification certificates, further entrenching their marginalization.
This historical context reveals how economic fears intertwined with racial prejudices, creating a foundation for long-term discrimination. For instance, the Act’s passage reflected broader nativist movements, influenced by pseudo-scientific theories of racial hierarchy prevalent in the late 19th century. Indeed, supporters like Senator John F. Miller argued that Chinese immigrants were inherently unassimilable, a view that persisted until the Act’s repeal in 1943 amid World War II alliances (Lee, 2003). In analyzing this period through an American literature perspective, one can see parallels in works that critique such exclusion, highlighting the human stories often overlooked in policy debates. This background sets the stage for understanding how stereotypes from this era continue to influence modern perceptions of Asian Americans.
Asian Hate Stereotypes and the 1800s Flashback
Asian hate stereotypes in the 1800s were deeply rooted in Orientalist depictions that portrayed Chinese immigrants as exotic, treacherous, and economically threatening, often encapsulated in the “Yellow Peril” trope. This stereotype emerged prominently during the California Gold Rush of 1849, when Chinese miners were accused of undercutting white laborers, leading to discriminatory taxes and violence (Saxton, 1971). Flashback to the 1800s reveals a society rife with media portrayals, such as newspaper cartoons depicting Chinese men as opium-addicted invaders, which fueled public hysteria and justified exclusionary policies. For example, the 1877 San Francisco riots saw mobs attacking Chinese communities, driven by rhetoric that labeled them as a monolithic threat to American purity. These stereotypes were not merely social; they were embedded in literature and popular culture, with dime novels sensationalizing tales of Chinese criminality, thereby perpetuating a narrative of inherent otherness.
In literary terms, these stereotypes contrast sharply with the nuanced portrayals in Asian American writing, which sought to humanize the immigrant experience. Arguably, this historical flashback underscores the limitations of such prejudices, as they ignored the diverse contributions of Chinese Americans, from agriculture to urban entrepreneurship. Furthermore, these 19th-century views laid the groundwork for ongoing biases, evident in how Asian Americans are still stereotyped as perpetual foreigners, a theme I explore through literary analysis. By evaluating these historical sources, it becomes clear that stereotypes served as tools for social control, limiting integration and fostering division.
Theodore Roosevelt’s Vision of the American Dream
Theodore Roosevelt’s writings and policies on the American Dream emphasized rugged individualism, opportunity, and assimilation, yet they often clashed with the realities faced by Asian immigrants during his era. In his 1899 speech “The Strenuous Life,” Roosevelt articulated an ideal where success stemmed from hard work and national unity, implicitly favoring European immigrants over Asians, whom he viewed with suspicion (Roosevelt, 1899). This vision, while promoting equality in theory, supported extensions of the Chinese Exclusion Act during his presidency (1901-1909), reflecting a selective interpretation of the Dream that excluded non-white groups. Comparing this to historical contexts, Roosevelt’s poetry—though limited, as seen in his occasional verses praising American expansionism—echoed themes of manifest destiny, portraying the nation as a melting pot for “worthy” races (Dalton, 2002). However, this ideal overlooked the systemic barriers faced by Chinese Americans, such as denial of citizenship, which contradicted his rhetoric of equal opportunity.
From a literary analysis standpoint, Roosevelt’s history reveals tensions in the American Dream narrative, where aspiration is tainted by exclusion. For instance, his support for Japanese immigration restrictions in the Gentlemen’s Agreement of 1907 further illustrated a hierarchical view of race (Daniels, 1988). In my opinion, this comparison highlights the hypocrisy in Roosevelt’s era, as the Dream was marketed as universal but practiced selectively. Therefore, analyzing these elements through American literature critiques how such ideals perpetuated Asian hate, providing a counterpoint to more inclusive literary voices.
Asian Hate Crimes During COVID-19
The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated anti-Asian hate, with over 9,000 reported incidents in the U.S. from March 2020 to June 2021, ranging from verbal harassment to physical assaults, often linked to rhetoric blaming China for the virus (Stop AAPI Hate, 2021). This spike mirrored historical patterns, as former President Trump’s use of terms like “Chinese virus” echoed 19th-century scapegoating, leading to attacks on elderly Asian Americans in cities like Atlanta, where a 2021 shooting killed six women of Asian descent (Human Rights Watch, 2021). Facts regarding Asian Americans show they constitute about 7% of the U.S. population, yet faced disproportionate hate, with women reporting 65% of incidents, highlighting gendered dimensions of racism (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020). Media sources, such as news reports from The New York Times, documented cases like the assault on a Filipino woman in Manhattan, underscoring the virulence of these crimes.
In literary terms, this contemporary hate connects to themes in works like Mrs. Spring Fragrance, where characters navigate similar prejudices. My analysis suggests that COVID-era hate reveals the persistence of 1800s stereotypes, adapted to modern fears. Indeed, this period demonstrates how global events can reignite dormant biases, calling for literary interventions to foster empathy.
Literary Analysis: Mrs. Spring Fragrance and Thesis Integration
Central to this essay’s thesis is Edith Eaton’s (Sui Sin Far) Mrs. Spring Fragrance (1912), a collection of short stories that humanizes Chinese American experiences amid exclusionary laws, arguing that assimilation efforts are undermined by persistent stereotypes. In the titular story, Mrs. Spring Fragrance mediates cultural misunderstandings, as when she advises on American courtship, stating, “American ways are not Chinese ways” (Eaton, 1912, p. 25), which critiques the forced binary between cultures. This supports my thesis by illustrating the emotional toll of hate, with characters facing microaggressions reminiscent of 1800s stereotypes and COVID-era violence. Topic sentence: Eaton’s work exposes the fallacy of the American Dream for Asians, as seen in stories where immigrants strive for acceptance but encounter rejection.
Supporting evidence from the text includes the story “In the Land of the Free,” where a Chinese family is separated by immigration officials, evoking the Exclusion Act’s cruelty: “The officials… took the child from her arms” (Eaton, 1912, p. 78). This mirrors historical facts and contrasts Roosevelt’s idealized Dream, highlighting exclusion’s reality. Furthermore, in analyzing Asian American facts, Eaton’s biracial perspective adds depth, challenging monolithic views. My opinion is that her “poetry” in prose—through lyrical descriptions—poignantly flashbacks to 1800s struggles, linking them to modern hate crimes. Thus, the collection serves as a literary bridge, evaluating perspectives on identity and belonging.
Another body paragraph focuses on stereotypes: Eaton presents them as surmountable through empathy, as in “The Wisdom of the New,” where a character overcomes prejudice via personal growth. Quotation: “She had come to understand that the American way was not altogether bad” (Eaton, 1912, p. 112). This evidence, drawn from the literary work, supports the thesis by showing resistance to hate, applicable to COVID contexts.
Conclusion
In summary, this essay has traced the trajectory of Asian hate from the Chinese Exclusion Act’s historical roots in the 1800s, through stereotypes and Roosevelt’s selective American Dream, to the resurgence during COVID-19, integrated with a literary analysis of Mrs. Spring Fragrance. Key arguments highlight how these elements reveal persistent exclusion, with Eaton’s work offering critical insights into assimilation’s challenges. The implications are profound: understanding these narratives through American literature fosters awareness and combats ongoing discrimination. Ultimately, addressing Asian hate requires confronting historical legacies, ensuring the American Dream becomes inclusive. This analysis, while limited in scope, underscores literature’s role in social critique, urging further exploration in academic studies.
References
- Center for the Study of Hate and Extremism. (2021) Fact Sheet: Anti-Asian Prejudice March 2021. California State University, San Bernardino.
- Dalton, K. (2002) Theodore Roosevelt: A Strenuous Life. Alfred A. Knopf.
- Daniels, R. (1988) Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States since 1850. University of Washington Press.
- Eaton, E. (Sui Sin Far). (1912) Mrs. Spring Fragrance. A.C. McClurg & Co.
- Human Rights Watch. (2021) Covid-19 Fuels Anti-Asian Racism and Xenophobia Worldwide. Human Rights Watch.
- Lee, E. (2003) At America’s Gates: Chinese Immigration during the Exclusion Era, 1882-1943. University of North Carolina Press.
- Roosevelt, T. (1899) The Strenuous Life: Essays and Addresses. The Century Co.
- Saxton, A. (1971) The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California. University of California Press.
- Stop AAPI Hate. (2021) National Report. Stop AAPI Hate.
- U.S. Census Bureau. (2020) Asian American and Pacific Islander Heritage Month: 2021. U.S. Census Bureau.
- Zesch, S. (2012) The Chinatown War: Chinese Los Angeles and the Massacre of 1871. Oxford University Press.
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