Introduction
Femicide, defined as the intentional killing of women and girls because of their gender, represents a profound and pervasive form of violence that transcends cultural, economic, and geographical boundaries. As a critical issue within the psychology of violence, femicide demands urgent attention to unravel its root causes, psychological underpinnings, and societal implications. This essay aims to explore femicide as a global crisis by examining its prevalence, the psychological and social factors that contribute to it, and the challenges in addressing this form of gendered violence. The discussion will draw on a range of academic sources to provide a sound understanding of the topic, while critically evaluating the limitations of current knowledge and interventions. By doing so, the essay seeks to highlight the relevance of femicide within psychological studies of violence and to underscore the need for comprehensive strategies to combat it.
The Scale and Scope of Femicide Globally
Femicide is a global phenomenon, with devastating impacts on women and communities worldwide. According to a report by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), approximately 87,000 women were intentionally killed in 2017, with more than half of these murders committed by intimate partners or family members (UNODC, 2018). This statistic reveals the deeply personal nature of femicide, often occurring within the supposed safety of domestic environments. In regions such as Latin America, where the term ‘femicidio’ has been legally recognised, countries like Mexico report alarming rates of gender-based killings, with an average of 10 women murdered daily (Dawson and Carrigan, 2021). Meanwhile, in Europe, while rates may be lower, femicide remains a persistent issue, often underreported due to inconsistent definitions and data collection methods (Weil, 2016).
The global variation in femicide rates highlights the influence of cultural and social norms. In some contexts, such as parts of South Asia, honour killings—a subset of femicide—are justified by patriarchal ideologies that prioritise family reputation over women’s lives (Patel and Gadit, 2008). However, the lack of standardised data collection globally limits our understanding of the full extent of femicide. This gap in knowledge underscores a critical limitation: without accurate, comparable statistics, crafting effective interventions becomes increasingly difficult. From a psychological perspective, understanding the prevalence of femicide is crucial for identifying patterns of violence and developing targeted prevention strategies.
Psychological Factors Underlying Femicide
The psychology of violence offers valuable insights into the motivations and behaviours associated with femicide. At the individual level, perpetrators often exhibit traits linked to toxic masculinity, such as a need for control, entitlement, and aggression towards women who challenge traditional gender roles (Kimmel, 2017). These characteristics are frequently exacerbated by mental health issues or substance abuse, though it must be noted that these factors do not excuse violent behaviour but rather contextualise it (Dobash and Dobash, 2015). Furthermore, psychological theories such as social learning theory suggest that violent behaviours can be learned through exposure to gendered violence in childhood, perpetuating a cycle of abuse across generations (Bandura, 1977).
At a broader level, femicide is underpinned by societal attitudes that devalue women, often reinforced through media and cultural narratives. Objectification theory, for instance, posits that the consistent portrayal of women as objects for male consumption can desensitise individuals to gender-based violence, normalising acts of femicide in extreme cases (Fredrickson and Roberts, 1997). While these psychological explanations provide a foundation for understanding femicide, they are limited in their ability to account for structural inequalities—such as economic dependence or legal discrimination—that often trap women in abusive situations. This suggests a need for an interdisciplinary approach that integrates psychological insights with sociological and legal perspectives.
Social and Structural Contributors to Femicide
Beyond individual psychology, femicide is deeply embedded in social and structural inequalities. Patriarchal systems, which prioritise male authority, create environments where women’s lives are undervalued and violence against them is tolerated. For example, in many contexts, domestic violence—a frequent precursor to femicide—is dismissed as a private matter, with law enforcement and judicial systems failing to provide adequate protection (Russell and Harmes, 2001). This systemic neglect is evident in the UK, where a 2019 report by the Office for National Statistics (ONS) revealed that women are disproportionately affected by intimate partner violence, often with fatal consequences (ONS, 2019).
Economic factors also play a significant role. Women who are financially dependent on abusive partners are often unable to leave dangerous situations, increasing their risk of femicide (Walby, 2004). Moreover, in regions with high levels of impunity, such as parts of Central America, the failure to prosecute perpetrators creates a culture of acceptance around gender-based killings (Dawson and Carrigan, 2021). Critically, these structural issues highlight a key limitation in addressing femicide: psychological interventions alone cannot dismantle the societal frameworks that enable such violence. Therefore, while understanding the psychological drivers of femicide is essential, it must be complemented by efforts to reform legal, economic, and cultural systems.
Challenges in Addressing Femicide
Despite growing awareness, significant challenges remain in combating femicide. One major obstacle is the inconsistency in legal definitions and data collection. As Weil (2016) notes, the term ‘femicide’ is not universally recognised, and many countries fail to record gender-based killings as distinct from other homicides. This results in underreporting and hinders the development of evidence-based policies. Additionally, cultural resistance to challenging patriarchal norms poses a barrier to change. In some societies, attempts to address femicide are met with backlash, as they are perceived to undermine traditional values (Patel and Gadit, 2008).
From a psychological standpoint, prevention programmes often focus on individual behaviour change, such as anger management or education on healthy relationships. However, these initiatives frequently neglect the broader social context, limiting their effectiveness (Dobash and Dobash, 2015). Indeed, while such programmes are valuable, they must be paired with structural reforms to address root causes. Another challenge lies in the stigmatisation of victims, who are sometimes blamed for their own deaths due to perceived failures to conform to societal expectations (Russell and Harmes, 2001). This victim-blaming culture not only discourages reporting but also perpetuates the normalisation of femicide, illustrating the complexity of tackling this issue at both psychological and societal levels.
Conclusion
In summary, femicide represents a profound global crisis of violence, rooted in a complex interplay of psychological, social, and structural factors. Its prevalence, as evidenced by staggering global statistics, underscores the urgent need for action, while psychological theories provide insight into the individual and societal attitudes that drive such violence. However, limitations in data collection and cultural resistance pose significant challenges to effective intervention. Critically, addressing femicide requires a multifaceted approach that integrates psychological understanding with legal and economic reforms to dismantle the patriarchal systems that enable this violence. The implications of this crisis extend beyond individual victims, affecting communities and societies at large, and thus demand sustained attention within the field of psychology and beyond. Ultimately, by fostering a deeper understanding of femicide and advocating for systemic change, there is potential to reduce its occurrence and protect countless lives. This essay has provided a broad overview of the issue, yet it also acknowledges that much remains to be explored, particularly in terms of developing culturally sensitive and sustainable solutions.
References
- Bandura, A. (1977) Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
- Dawson, M. and Carrigan, M. (2021) ‘Femicide in Latin America: Legal and Social Challenges’, Journal of Gender Studies, 30(2), pp. 123-135.
- Dobash, R. E. and Dobash, R. P. (2015) When Men Murder Women. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Fredrickson, B. L. and Roberts, T. A. (1997) ‘Objectification Theory: Toward Understanding Women’s Lived Experiences and Mental Health Risks’, Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2), pp. 173-206.
- Kimmel, M. S. (2017) Angry White Men: American Masculinity at the End of an Era. New York: Nation Books.
- Office for National Statistics (ONS) (2019) Domestic Abuse in England and Wales Overview: November 2019. ONS.
- Patel, S. and Gadit, A. M. (2008) ‘Karo-Kari: A Form of Honour Killing in Pakistan’, Transcultural Psychiatry, 45(4), pp. 683-694.
- Russell, D. E. H. and Harmes, R. A. (2001) Femicide in Global Perspective. New York: Teachers College Press.
- United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (2018) Global Study on Homicide: Gender-Related Killing of Women and Girls. UNODC.
- Walby, S. (2004) ‘The Cost of Domestic Violence’, Women and Equality Unit, London: Department of Trade and Industry.
- Weil, S. (2016) ‘Failed Femicides Among Migrant Women’, Qualitative Sociology Review, 12(4), pp. 6-21.
