Introduction
This essay aims to construct a timeline of the development of criminology during the 20th century, a period marked by significant theoretical advancements and the emergence of diverse perspectives within the discipline. Focusing on the contemporary era, it will explore key contributions from Marxist, Freudian, and Behaviourist theorists, highlighting how their ideas shaped the understanding of crime and criminal behaviour. By examining these schools of thought, the essay will demonstrate the broadening scope of criminology as a field of study, while also acknowledging some limitations of these perspectives. The discussion will provide a foundational understanding of how criminology evolved, informed by academic literature and critical analysis.
The Early 20th Century: Freud and Psychoanalytic Criminology
The early 20th century saw the influence of Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory on criminology, marking a shift towards understanding the psychological underpinnings of criminal behaviour. Freud (1923) posited that human behaviour, including criminal acts, is driven by unconscious conflicts between the id, ego, and superego. He argued that unresolved internal struggles or early childhood traumas could manifest in deviant behaviour, as individuals might act out repressed desires or frustrations. This perspective introduced the idea that crime is not solely a rational choice but could be the result of deeper psychological issues. While innovative for its time, Freud’s theories lacked empirical support and were often criticised for their speculative nature (Hollin, 2013). Nevertheless, his work laid the groundwork for later psychological approaches to criminology, encouraging a focus on the individual’s mind rather than solely on external factors.
Mid-20th Century: Behaviourist Approaches and Environmental Influences
By the mid-20th century, behaviourist theories gained prominence, offering a contrasting view to psychoanalysis. Pioneered by figures like B.F. Skinner, behaviourism emphasised the role of learning and environmental conditioning in shaping behaviour, including criminal actions. Skinner (1953) argued that individuals learn behaviours through reinforcement and punishment, suggesting that criminality could result from environments that reward deviant actions or fail to deter them. This approach was significant in criminology as it shifted attention to observable, measurable factors rather than internal mental states, influencing policies around rehabilitation and deterrence. However, critics noted that behaviourism often overlooked deeper psychological or social complexities (Hollin, 2013). Despite this, its focus on external stimuli provided a practical framework for interventions, such as behaviour modification programmes in correctional settings.
Late 20th Century: Marxist Criminology and Social Critique
Towards the latter half of the 20th century, Marxist criminology emerged as a critical perspective, challenging traditional views of crime as merely individual failing. Drawing on Karl Marx’s ideas, theorists like Willem Bonger and later Richard Quinney argued that crime is fundamentally tied to the inequalities inherent in capitalist societies. Bonger (1916) suggested that capitalism fosters egoism and competition, driving individuals—particularly from the working class—towards crime due to economic deprivation. Similarly, Quinney (1977) highlighted how laws often serve the interests of the ruling class, criminalising behaviours that threaten their power. This perspective was groundbreaking in its emphasis on structural factors, though it has been critiqued for underplaying individual agency and overemphasising economic determinism (Young, 1999). Nonetheless, Marxist criminology broadened the discipline by linking crime to wider social and political contexts, influencing critical and radical criminological thought.
Conclusion
In summary, the 20th century was a transformative period for criminology, marked by the integration of diverse theoretical perspectives such as Freudian psychoanalysis, behaviourism, and Marxist critique. Each approach contributed uniquely to the field: Freud by exploring the unconscious drivers of crime, behaviourists by focusing on learned behaviours, and Marxists by situating crime within societal structures. While each theory has its limitations—be it lack of empirical grounding or oversimplification—their collective impact has enriched criminology, offering multifaceted explanations for criminal behaviour. The implications of this development are significant, as they underscore the need for criminological research and policy to address both individual and systemic factors, ensuring a more comprehensive approach to crime prevention and justice.
References
- Bonger, W. (1916) Criminality and Economic Conditions. Little, Brown and Company.
- Freud, S. (1923) The Ego and the Id. Hogarth Press.
- Hollin, C. R. (2013) Psychology and Crime: An Introduction to Criminological Psychology. Routledge.
- Quinney, R. (1977) Class, State, and Crime: On the Theory and Practice of Criminal Justice. David McKay Company.
- Skinner, B. F. (1953) Science and Human Behavior. Macmillan.
- Young, J. (1999) The Exclusive Society: Social Exclusion, Crime and Difference in Late Modernity. Sage Publications.
