Introduction
This essay aims to explore and critically compare two foundational schools of thought in psychology: Psychoanalysis, pioneered by Sigmund Freud and later developed by Carl Jung, and Behaviourism, established by John B. Watson and advanced by B.F. Skinner. The purpose is to provide an overview of each school, including their origins, key theories, and assumptions about human behaviour and the mind. Following this, the essay will compare their similarities and differences, evaluating points of convergence and conflict. Furthermore, a specific feature from each school will be linked to a contemporary issue to assess the relevance of these historical ideas in modern contexts. By engaging with primary sources such as Freud’s and Skinner’s original writings, alongside secondary sources like modern research and journal articles, this analysis will weigh the enduring utility and limitations of these schools. The discussion will demonstrate critical thinking by not merely describing these approaches but by evaluating their applicability today, contributing an original academic voice to the discourse on psychology’s historical foundations.
Overview of Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis, founded by Sigmund Freud in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, emerged as a revolutionary approach to understanding the human mind. Freud, an Austrian neurologist, proposed that much of human behaviour is driven by unconscious processes—thoughts, memories, and desires that lie beyond conscious awareness. In his seminal work, *The Interpretation of Dreams* (1899), Freud argued, “The interpretation of dreams is the royal road to a knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind” (Freud, 1900, p. 608). His theory posits a tripartite model of the psyche—comprising the id (instinctual drives), ego (mediator), and superego (moral conscience)—which interact to shape behaviour. Freud assumed that unresolved conflicts, often rooted in childhood experiences, manifest as mental distress or neuroses. Carl Jung, a student of Freud, expanded psychoanalysis by introducing concepts like the collective unconscious and archetypes, though he diverged by emphasising spiritual and cultural influences over Freud’s focus on sexuality.
The central assumption of psychoanalysis is that human behaviour is largely determined by hidden psychological forces rather than rational choice. This school prioritised introspection, dream analysis, and free association as methods to uncover these forces. However, its reliance on subjective interpretation has often been critiqued for lacking empirical rigour, a point of contention in modern psychology.
Overview of Behaviourism
In stark contrast, Behaviourism emerged in the early 20th century as a reaction against introspection-based approaches like psychoanalysis. Founded by John B. Watson, who famously declared in his 1913 manifesto that psychology should focus solely on observable behaviour, Behaviourism rejected the study of the mind as unscientific. Watson asserted, “Psychology as the behaviourist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behaviour” (Watson, 1913, p. 158). This perspective was further developed by B.F. Skinner, who introduced operant conditioning, a theory suggesting that behaviour is shaped by consequences such as reinforcement or punishment. In his work *Science and Human Behavior* (1953), Skinner wrote, “A person does not act upon the world, the world acts upon him” (Skinner, 1953, p. 447), highlighting the deterministic view that external stimuli govern actions.
Behaviourism assumes that human behaviour is learned through interaction with the environment, dismissing internal mental states as irrelevant. This approach prioritised experimental methods, producing testable and replicable findings, which granted it significant influence in applied psychology, particularly in education and therapy during the mid-20th century.
Comparative Analysis: Commonalities and Conflicts
Despite their disparate foundations, Psychoanalysis and Behaviourism share some common ground. Both schools sought to explain human behaviour systematically, aiming to address psychological distress through structured frameworks. Furthermore, each, in its own way, challenged the notion of free will: Freud through unconscious determinism and Skinner through environmental determinism. However, their differences are profound. Psychoanalysis delves into the internal, subjective world of the mind, focusing on unobservable drives and conflicts, whereas Behaviourism strictly examines external, measurable actions, dismissing mental constructs as irrelevant. Where Freud’s methodology relied on qualitative techniques like case studies, Behaviourism embraced quantitative, experimental designs, reflecting a fundamental clash in epistemological approaches.
Another point of conflict lies in their assumptions about human nature. Psychoanalysis views individuals as complex, driven by innate conflicts and hidden desires, while Behaviourism reduces behaviour to simple stimulus-response associations, arguably oversimplifying human experience. This dichotomy raises critical questions about whether psychology should prioritise depth over precision or vice versa. While Freud’s emphasis on the unconscious helped uncover the complexity of hidden drives, his theory remains limited in contemporary contexts due to its lack of falsifiability. Behaviourism, conversely, offers testable principles like reinforcement that persist in applied psychology, though it often neglects the richness of human emotion and cognition (Eysenck, 2004).
Contemporary Relevance: Linking Features to Modern Issues
To evaluate the ongoing utility of these schools, this section links a key feature from each to a contemporary issue. From Psychoanalysis, Freud’s concept of the unconscious mind remains a point of discussion in trauma treatment. Freud argued that repressed memories and emotions influence behaviour, a notion evident in his statement, “Unexpressed emotions will never die. They are buried alive and will come forth later in uglier ways” (Freud, 1915, as cited in Gay, 1989, p. 370). Today, trauma-focused therapies like psychodynamic therapy still draw on this idea, exploring how past experiences shape current mental states. However, modern research critiques its lack of empirical support; for instance, Loftus (1993) highlights the risks of false memory syndrome in therapies probing the unconscious. While Freud’s insight into hidden influences remains conceptually valuable, its application is limited by ethical and scientific concerns.
From Behaviourism, Skinner’s principle of reinforcement is highly relevant to contemporary education and cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT). Skinner’s assertion that “behaviour which is reinforced tends to be repeated” (Skinner, 1953, p. 65) underpins reward-based systems in schools and CBT techniques for behaviour modification. Modern studies, such as those by Kazdin (2013), affirm that reinforcement strategies effectively manage conditions like anxiety by encouraging adaptive behaviours. Unlike Psychoanalysis, Behaviourism’s principles are readily testable and adaptable, cementing their utility. However, critics argue that reinforcement alone cannot address deeper cognitive or emotional issues, indicating a limitation in scope (Beck, 2011).
Conclusion
In conclusion, this essay has explored Psychoanalysis and Behaviourism, two seminal schools of thought in psychology, summarising their origins, theories, and assumptions while critically comparing their approaches. Though both aim to explain human behaviour, their methods and foci diverge sharply, with Psychoanalysis prioritising the unconscious and Behaviourism focusing on observable actions. Linking key features to contemporary issues reveals that while Freud’s unconscious mind offers conceptual depth for trauma treatment, it lacks empirical grounding, whereas Skinner’s reinforcement remains practically useful in education and therapy, though not exhaustive. This analysis suggests that while historical ideas retain some relevance, their utility depends on integration with modern, evidence-based frameworks. Indeed, psychology’s evolution demands a balance between honouring foundational insights and embracing scientific rigour, a challenge that continues to shape the discipline today.
References
- Beck, A. T. (2011) Cognitive Therapy of Anxiety Disorders: Science and Practice. Guilford Press.
- Eysenck, H. J. (2004) Psychology: An International Perspective. Psychology Press.
- Freud, S. (1900) The Interpretation of Dreams. Translated by J. Strachey. Basic Books.
- Gay, P. (1989) Freud: A Life for Our Time. W.W. Norton & Company.
- Kazdin, A. E. (2013) Behavior Modification in Applied Settings. Waveland Press.
- Loftus, E. F. (1993) The reality of repressed memories. American Psychologist, 48(5), 518-537.
- Skinner, B. F. (1953) Science and Human Behavior. Macmillan.
- Watson, J. B. (1913) Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It. Psychological Review, 20(2), 158-177.
