Introduction
This essay aims to provide a foundational resource for criminology students by exploring the historical development of criminology in Britain, focusing on the key thinkers, theories, and models that have shaped the discipline. Criminology, as a field of study, seeks to understand the causes, consequences, and prevention of crime, and its evolution in Britain reflects broader societal, philosophical, and scientific changes. The essay is structured into three main sections: the early foundations of criminological thought in the 18th and 19th centuries, the emergence of key theories and thinkers in the late 19th and 20th centuries, and the development of influential models that continue to guide contemporary criminology. Additionally, a visual timeline is included to provide a clear chronological overview. By examining these elements, this essay offers a broad understanding of the discipline’s roots and its relevance to modern criminal justice, while also noting some limitations in early perspectives.
Early Foundations of Criminological Thought (18th-19th Century)
The origins of criminology in Britain can be traced back to the Enlightenment period of the 18th century, a time of significant philosophical inquiry into human behaviour and societal structures. During this era, crime was often viewed through a moral or religious lens, with punishment serving as retribution rather than rehabilitation. However, thinkers like Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) challenged these notions by introducing utilitarian principles to the study of crime and punishment. Bentham argued that the purpose of punishment should be deterrence, achieved through a rational calculation of pain and pleasure, rather than mere vengeance (Bentham, 1789). His ideas laid the groundwork for the Classical School of criminology, which emphasised free will, rational choice, and proportionate punishment.
In Britain, Bentham’s work influenced legal reforms, including the reduction of harsh punishments like public executions. His advocacy for the Panopticon, a prison design intended to ensure constant surveillance and self-regulation of inmates, reflected early attempts to apply scientific reasoning to crime control, though it was never fully implemented in its original form. While Bentham’s ideas marked a shift towards a more systematic approach to crime, they were limited by their focus on individual rationality, often overlooking social and economic factors that contribute to criminal behaviour. This gap highlights the need for later theories to address wider structural influences, a point of criticism that subsequent thinkers would tackle.
Key Thinkers and Theories (Late 19th–20th Century)
By the late 19th century, criminology in Britain began to incorporate scientific and sociological perspectives, moving beyond the Classical School’s focus on individual choice. The Positivist School, although largely developed in Europe by figures like Cesare Lombroso, had a notable impact on British criminology. Lombroso’s theory of the “born criminal,” which suggested that criminality was biologically determined and identifiable through physical traits, gained attention in Britain during debates on prison reform and the treatment of offenders (Lombroso, 1876). However, British scholars and policymakers were generally critical of Lombroso’s deterministic views, favouring instead environmental and social explanations for crime.
Indeed, the 20th century saw the rise of sociological criminology in Britain, influenced by the Chicago School in the United States and adapted to local contexts. The work of British scholars like Cyril Burt, who explored the role of family and upbringing in juvenile delinquency, reflected a growing recognition of social factors (Burt, 1925). Additionally, the emergence of strain theory, developed by Robert Merton and later adapted by British criminologists, highlighted how societal structures—such as inequality—could lead to deviant behaviour when individuals were unable to achieve culturally valued goals through legitimate means (Merton, 1938). This marked a significant departure from earlier biological explanations, offering a more nuanced understanding of crime as a product of social pressures.
Furthermore, the post-World War II period brought about critical perspectives, with thinkers like Howard Becker contributing to labelling theory. This approach, widely discussed in British academic circles, argued that deviance was not inherent but rather a result of societal labels and reactions (Becker, 1963). Such theories remain relevant today, as they encourage students to consider how criminal justice systems may perpetuate cycles of marginalisation. These developments illustrate a critical shift in criminology, though they are not without limitations, as labelling theory, for instance, struggles to explain why certain acts are labelled as criminal in the first place.
Influential Models and Visual Timeline
Several models have shaped modern criminology in Britain, providing frameworks for understanding and addressing crime. The Medical Model, prominent in the early 20th century, viewed criminality as a form of illness requiring treatment rather than punishment, influencing policies on mental health and rehabilitation within the prison system (Garland, 1985). By contrast, the Justice Model, which gained traction in the 1970s, re-emphasised punishment and retribution, advocating for fixed sentences and accountability over rehabilitation. These competing models reflect ongoing debates within British criminology about the purpose of criminal justice—whether to reform or to punish.
Another key framework is the Risk Assessment Model, which emerged in the late 20th century as part of a broader “risk society” discourse. This model prioritises predicting and managing potential criminal behaviour through tools like actuarial risk assessments, often used in probation and parole decisions (Feeley and Simon, 1992). While effective in targeting resources, this approach has been critiqued for its potential to stigmatise certain groups, raising ethical questions that remain unresolved. Together, these models demonstrate criminology’s adaptability to changing social and political climates, though their application often reveals tensions between individual rights and public safety.
To aid comprehension, a visual timeline of key milestones in British criminology is provided below:
- 1789: Jeremy Bentham publishes An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, establishing the foundations of the Classical School.
- 1876: Cesare Lombroso’s Criminal Man influences British debates on biological determinism, though with limited adoption.
- 1925: Cyril Burt’s The Young Delinquent highlights social factors in juvenile crime.
- 1963: Howard Becker’s Outsiders popularises labelling theory in British criminology.
- 1970s: The Justice Model gains prominence, shifting focus to retribution over rehabilitation.
- 1990s: Risk Assessment Models become central to criminal justice policy, focusing on prevention and prediction.
This timeline, while not exhaustive, offers a snapshot of critical moments and shifts in thought, encouraging students to explore these events in greater depth.
Conclusion
In summary, the historical development of criminology in Britain is marked by a transition from moral and rationalist perspectives in the 18th century to scientific, sociological, and risk-based approaches in the 19th and 20th centuries. Key thinkers like Bentham, Burt, and Becker, alongside theories from the Classical and Positivist Schools to strain and labelling theories, have profoundly shaped the discipline. Moreover, models such as the Medical, Justice, and Risk Assessment frameworks continue to influence policy and practice, though not without contention. For criminology students, understanding this history is essential, as it underscores the dynamic nature of the field and its responsiveness to societal changes. It also highlights the limitations of early theories, such as their occasional neglect of structural inequalities, prompting ongoing critical engagement. Ultimately, this background equips students to approach contemporary issues in criminal justice with a historically informed perspective, fostering a deeper appreciation of both the progress and the challenges that lie ahead.
References
- Becker, H. S. (1963) Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. Free Press.
- Bentham, J. (1789) An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. T. Payne and Son.
- Burt, C. (1925) The Young Delinquent. University of London Press.
- Feeley, M. and Simon, J. (1992) ‘The New Penology: Notes on the Emerging Strategy of Corrections and Its Implications’, Criminology, 30(4), pp. 449-474.
- Garland, D. (1985) Punishment and Welfare: A History of Penal Strategies. Gower Publishing.
- Lombroso, C. (1876) Criminal Man. Putnam.
- Merton, R. K. (1938) ‘Social Structure and Anomie’, American Sociological Review, 3(5), pp. 672-682.
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