Introduction
John Milton’s Paradise Lost (1667) stands as a monumental epic poem that reimagines biblical narratives through the lens of classical epic traditions. At its core, the character of Satan emerges as a complex figure, often interpreted as an anti-hero whose portrayal challenges conventional notions of heroism. This essay explores Satan as an epic anti-hero, drawing on William Empson’s observation in Milton’s God (1961) that Milton deliberately structures the poem to depict Satan’s gradual degradation—from a figure of defiant righteousness to one of moral decay—while engaging with traditional epic heroic qualities. By reflecting on archetypes from epics like Homer’s Iliad and Virgil’s Aeneid, the essay examines how Milton adapts these traits to serve his theological and political purposes in a post-Restoration England. Key arguments will address Satan’s initial heroic attributes, his anti-heroic transformation, and Milton’s innovative use of epic form to critique hubris and rebellion. This analysis, grounded in literary criticism, highlights the poem’s “magnificent architecture” as Empson describes, underscoring Milton’s intentional portrayal of Satan’s decline.
Traditional Qualities of Epic Heroism
Epic heroism, as established in classical literature, typically encompasses a set of defining characteristics that Milton would have been intimately familiar with, given his classical education and admiration for ancient poets. In Homer’s Iliad (circa 8th century BCE), heroes like Achilles embody physical prowess, courage in battle, and a sense of aristeia—or moments of supreme excellence—often driven by personal honour and fate (Homer, trans. 1990). Similarly, Virgil’s Aeneas in the Aeneid (19 BCE) represents piety (pietas), leadership, and a commitment to destiny, subordinating personal desires to a greater divine or communal purpose (Virgil, trans. 2006). These qualities—bravery, rhetorical skill, leadership, and a quest narrative—form the backbone of the epic hero, who often grapples with internal conflicts but ultimately aligns with a heroic code.
Milton, writing in the 17th century, consciously invokes these traditions in Paradise Lost to elevate his biblical subject matter to epic status. As C.S. Lewis argues in A Preface to Paradise Lost (1942), Milton adapts the epic form to Christian themes, transforming pagan heroism into a vehicle for exploring free will and divine justice (Lewis, 1942). However, Satan’s role subverts this archetype. Unlike Achilles or Aeneas, whose heroism serves a positive teleology, Satan begins with heroic traits that Milton twists to reveal their potential for corruption. This adaptation reflects Milton’s Puritan worldview, where true heroism lies in obedience to God rather than individualistic defiance. Empson’s quote emphasises this calculated structure, noting how the poem’s narrative shifts—through flashbacks and forward progression—forcefully present Satan’s change, ensuring readers witness his initial certainty and subsequent rot without narrative inconsistency.
Satan’s Initial Presentation as a Heroic Figure
In the opening books of Paradise Lost, Satan exhibits many traditional epic heroic qualities, positioning him as a compelling protagonist before his degradation becomes evident. Upon his defeat and fall into Hell, Satan rallies his fallen comrades with stirring rhetoric, declaring, “What though the field be lost? All is not lost—the unconquerable will, / And study of revenge, immortal hate, / And courage never to submit or yield” (Milton, 1667, Book I, lines 105-108). This speech echoes the defiant courage of Homer’s Achilles, who chooses glory over a long life, and demonstrates Satan’s leadership and oratorical prowess—key epic traits. Furthermore, his journey through Chaos to Earth mirrors the epic quest, fraught with peril and requiring immense resolve, much like Odysseus’s odyssey or Aeneas’s voyage.
Critics like Stanley Fish in Surprised by Sin (1967) suggest that Milton crafts Satan this way to initially seduce the reader, mirroring humanity’s fallible tendency to admire rebellious figures (Fish, 1967). This aligns with Empson’s view of Satan’s early certainty in the righteousness of his cause, despite defeat. Indeed, in Raphael’s narrative (Books V-VI), Satan is depicted as a confident archangel, believing his rebellion against God to be just and victorious, adapting the epic hero’s sense of destiny to a perverse end. Milton’s purpose here is arguably didactic: by endowing Satan with heroic allure, he illustrates the dangers of unchecked ambition, a theme resonant in a era of political upheaval following the English Civil War. However, this heroism is qualified; Satan’s “unconquerable will” is rooted in pride, not piety, marking the inception of his anti-heroic turn. As Barbara K. Lewalski notes in The Life of John Milton (2000), Milton’s republican ideals inform this portrayal, critiquing tyrannical authority while warning against anarchic rebellion (Lewalski, 2000).
The Degradation of Satan as an Anti-Hero
Empson’s analysis highlights the “gradual calculated degradation” of Satan, transforming him from a pseudo-hero into a quintessential anti-hero whose flaws overshadow his virtues. Traditional epic heroes often experience doubt but recover through growth or divine aid; Satan, however, descends into despair and malice. After his initial bravado, moments of vulnerability emerge, such as in Book IV where he laments, “Which way I fly is Hell; myself am Hell” (Milton, 1667, Book IV, line 75), revealing internal torment that erodes his heroic facade. This shift, as Empson observes, is structurally reinforced by the poem’s non-linear narrative: readers see Satan’s pre-fall confidence via Raphael’s account, only to return to his post-fall decay, emphasising the inevitability of his corruption.
Milton adapts epic qualities to underscore this anti-heroism. Satan’s courage morphs into reckless vengeance, his leadership into manipulation—as seen when he deceives Eve in Book IX—and his quest into a destructive infiltration of Eden. Unlike Aeneas, whose piety drives him forward, Satan’s actions stem from envy and spite, aligning him with anti-heroic figures in later literature, such as Shakespeare’s Iago, but rooted in epic scale. Christopher Ricks, in Milton’s Grand Style (1963), argues that this degradation serves Milton’s theological aim: to demonstrate that rebellion against divine order leads to self-destruction, countering interpretations that romanticise Satan as a Byronic hero (Ricks, 1963). Empson counters the “hunger to argue that he is very bad from the start” by insisting on the intentional progression, which prevents slip-ups and affirms Milton’s design. Therefore, Satan’s anti-heroism critiques traditional heroism, suggesting that without moral grounding, epic virtues become vices. This adaptation reflects Milton’s purpose in a politically turbulent time, using Satan to allegorise figures like Charles I or Cromwell, whose ambitions led to downfall.
Milton’s Purposes in Adapting Epic Heroism
Milton’s reconfiguration of epic heroism through Satan serves broader ideological ends, blending classical form with Christian doctrine to address 17th-century concerns. As an epic, Paradise Lost justifies “the ways of God to men” (Milton, 1667, Book I, line 26), but Satan’s anti-heroic arc complicates this, inviting readers to question authority and free will. Empson’s emphasis on the poem’s architecture underscores how Milton uses narrative structure to force recognition of Satan’s change, preventing simplistic vilification and encouraging nuanced interpretation. This is evident in the contrast between Satan’s early grandeur and later pettiness, such as his transformation into a serpent, symbolising utter degradation.
Critically, this adaptation highlights limitations in traditional epic heroism, which often glorifies war and individualism—traits Milton, a blind poet disillusioned by the Restoration, reshapes to promote humility and obedience. As David Daiches explores in Milton (1957), Satan’s portrayal warns against the seductive power of rhetoric and rebellion, pertinent to Milton’s own experiences in the Commonwealth’s failure (Daiches, 1957). However, some critics, like Empson, argue this creates ambiguity, with Satan’s vitality overshadowing divine figures, though the structure ensures his rot is unmistakable. Ultimately, Milton’s innovation lies in making the anti-hero a tool for moral instruction, adapting epic conventions to a Christian framework that prioritises spiritual over worldly heroism.
Conclusion
In summary, Satan in Paradise Lost embodies an epic anti-hero whose initial alignment with traditional heroic qualities—courage, leadership, and questing spirit—gives way to degradation, as Empson insightfully notes. Milton adapts classical epic traits from Homer and Virgil to critique hubris, serving his theological and political purposes by illustrating the perils of rebellion. This portrayal not only enriches the poem’s architecture but also invites reflection on heroism’s moral dimensions. The implications extend to understanding how literature can subvert genres to address contemporary issues, reminding readers that true heroism resides in alignment with divine will. While interpretations vary, Milton’s intentional structure ensures Satan’s arc remains a forceful commentary on human fallibility.
References
- Daiches, D. (1957) Milton. Hutchinson University Library.
- Empson, W. (1961) Milton’s God. Chatto & Windus.
- Fish, S. (1967) Surprised by Sin: The Reader in Paradise Lost. Macmillan.
- Homer. (trans. 1990) The Iliad. Translated by R. Fagles. Penguin Classics.
- Lewalski, B. K. (2000) The Life of John Milton: A Critical Biography. Blackwell Publishers.
- Lewis, C. S. (1942) A Preface to Paradise Lost. Oxford University Press.
- Milton, J. (1667) Paradise Lost. [Original publication; various editions available, e.g., Oxford World’s Classics].
- Ricks, C. (1963) Milton’s Grand Style. Clarendon Press.
- Virgil. (trans. 2006) The Aeneid. Translated by R. Fagles. Penguin Classics.
