Introduction
W.B. Yeats’ poem “The Second Coming,” first published in 1920, stands as a pivotal work in modernist literature, capturing the profound sense of chaos and uncertainty that permeated the post-World War I era. Written in 1919, amid the aftermath of the Great War, the Irish War of Independence, and the Russian Revolution, the poem reflects a broader disillusionment with civilisation’s fragility (Jeffares, 1968). This essay critically analyses the poem, evaluating its portrayal of post-war disillusionment through themes of anarchy, apocalyptic imagery, and cyclical history. By examining historical context, symbolic elements, and Yeats’ philosophical influences, the analysis will argue that “The Second Coming” not only mirrors the societal breakdown following World War I but also anticipates further global turmoil. The discussion draws on key literary critiques to demonstrate how Yeats’ work embodies the modernist shift from optimism to despair, highlighting the poem’s enduring relevance in understanding human responses to crisis.
Historical Context of Post-War Disillusionment
The period following World War I was marked by widespread disillusionment, as the unprecedented scale of destruction— with over 16 million deaths and the collapse of empires—shattered illusions of progress and stability (Fussell, 1975). Yeats, an Irish poet deeply engaged with his nation’s struggles, composed “The Second Coming” against this backdrop, where traditional structures seemed to unravel. The poem’s opening lines, “Turning and turning in the widening gyre / The falcon cannot hear the falconer,” evoke a loss of control, symbolising the disconnection between authority and society in a war-torn world (Yeats, 1920). This imagery arguably reflects the political instability of the time, including the Bolshevik Revolution and the Irish Easter Rising’s aftermath, which Yeats witnessed personally.
Critics have noted that Yeats’ work captures the “waste land” mentality prevalent in post-war literature, akin to T.S. Eliot’s later “The Waste Land” (1922), where faith in human advancement was eroded by mechanised warfare and social upheaval (Ellmann, 1979). For instance, the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, intended to foster peace, instead sowed seeds of resentment, leading to further conflicts. Yeats’ poem, therefore, serves as a prophetic lament, interpreting these events as signs of civilisation’s decline. However, while the poem’s tone is undeniably bleak, it lacks explicit references to specific historical events, inviting interpretations that extend beyond immediate post-war disillusionment to broader existential fears. This ambiguity underscores Yeats’ skill in blending personal observation with universal themes, though some argue it dilutes the poem’s direct critique of war’s consequences (Ramazani, 1990). Nonetheless, the historical context provides a foundation for understanding how “The Second Coming” encapsulates the era’s pervasive sense of anarchy.
Analysis of Imagery and Symbolism
Yeats employs vivid, often disturbing imagery to convey post-war disillusionment, transforming biblical and mythological symbols into harbingers of doom. The “widening gyre,” drawn from Yeats’ mystical system of gyres representing historical cycles, illustrates a spiralling descent into chaos, where “things fall apart; the centre cannot hold” (Yeats, 1920). This phrase has become emblematic of modernist literature, reflecting the fragmentation experienced after the war, as empires dissolved and social norms eroded. The falcon’s inability to hear the falconer symbolises the breakdown of hierarchical order, mirroring the disillusionment with pre-war institutions that failed to prevent catastrophe.
Furthermore, the poem’s second stanza introduces apocalyptic visions, culminating in the “rough beast” that “Slouches towards Bethlehem to be born” (Yeats, 1920). This perversion of the Christian Second Coming—traditionally a moment of redemption—suggests a malevolent rebirth, arguably critiquing the false promises of post-war reconstruction. Critics like Bloom (1970) interpret this beast as a symbol of totalitarian regimes emerging in the 1920s and 1930s, such as fascism, which exploited war’s disillusionment. The imagery of “the blood-dimmed tide” and “mere anarchy” evokes the trenches’ horrors, where innocence was “drowned,” aligning with Fussell’s (1975) analysis of war literature’s ironic mode. However, Yeats’ symbolism is not without limitations; its esoteric nature, rooted in his occult beliefs, may alienate readers unfamiliar with his philosophy, potentially undermining the poem’s accessibility as a direct reflection of post-war sentiment (Jeffares, 1968). Despite this, the raw power of these images effectively conveys the era’s psychological trauma, making “The Second Coming” a poignant artifact of disillusionment.
Themes of Chaos and Apocalypse as Reflections of Disillusionment
Central to the poem’s evaluation is its exploration of chaos and apocalypse, which Yeats uses to diagnose the spiritual and moral void left by World War I. The line “The best lack all conviction, while the worst / Are full of passionate intensity” critiques the inversion of values in post-war society, where idealism gave way to extremism (Yeats, 1920). This theme resonates with the disillusionment felt by many, including the Lost Generation, who viewed the war as a betrayal of Enlightenment ideals (Ramazani, 1990). Yeats’ portrayal of an impending “Second Coming” not as salvation but as a terrifying revelation underscores a loss of faith in progress, a sentiment echoed in contemporaneous works like Eliot’s.
Moreover, the poem’s apocalyptic tone reflects Yeats’ theory of historical cycles, detailed in his prose work “A Vision” (1925), where civilisations rise and fall in 2,000-year gyres. Post-war Europe, in this view, was at the end of a cycle, birthing a new, barbaric era— a interpretation that prophetically anticipated events like World War II (Ellmann, 1979). Critically, however, this cyclical view can be seen as deterministic, offering little agency for human intervention and thus deepening the sense of helplessness. While some scholars praise this as a profound insight into disillusionment’s depths (Bloom, 1970), others contend it romanticises chaos, glossing over the war’s tangible political causes (Unterecker, 1959). Nevertheless, these themes effectively capture the era’s mood, blending personal despair with collective trauma to evaluate how poetry can articulate unspoken societal fears.
Yeats’ Philosophical Influences and Personal Perspective
Yeats’ personal philosophy, influenced by mysticism and Irish nationalism, further shapes “The Second Coming” as a reflection of post-war disillusionment. His involvement in the occult, including the Golden Dawn society, informed the poem’s gyre symbolism, representing inevitable historical shifts (Jeffares, 1968). This perspective allowed Yeats to frame the war’s chaos as part of a larger cosmic pattern, providing a lens through which disillusionment appears not random but fated. Personally, Yeats was disillusioned by Ireland’s civil strife, which paralleled global unrest, infusing the poem with autobiographical elements (Ellmann, 1979).
Critically, this blend of the personal and philosophical elevates the poem beyond mere historical commentary, though it invites debate on its universality. Ramazani (1990) argues that Yeats’ elitist mysticism somewhat distances the poem from the everyday soldier’s disillusionment, yet it arguably enriches its depth. By evaluating these influences, the poem emerges as a multifaceted critique, demonstrating Yeats’ ability to transform personal angst into a broader evaluation of modernity’s failures.
Conclusion
In summary, “The Second Coming” masterfully reflects post-war disillusionment through its chaotic imagery, apocalyptic themes, and philosophical underpinnings, portraying a world on the brink of collapse. Historical context, symbolic analysis, and Yeats’ influences reveal how the poem captures the era’s loss of faith in civilisation, while its ambiguities invite ongoing interpretation. Ultimately, this evaluation underscores the poem’s significance in English literature, offering insights into human resilience amid despair and warning of history’s cyclical dangers. As modernism’s anxieties persist in contemporary conflicts, Yeats’ work remains a vital touchstone for understanding disillusionment’s enduring impact.
References
- Bloom, H. (1970) Yeats. Oxford University Press.
- Ellmann, R. (1979) Yeats: The Man and the Masks. W.W. Norton & Company.
- Fussell, P. (1975) The Great War and Modern Memory. Oxford University Press.
- Jeffares, A.N. (1968) A Commentary on the Collected Poems of W.B. Yeats. Macmillan.
- Ramazani, J. (1990) Yeats and the Poetry of Death: Elegy, Self-Elegy, and the Sublime. Yale University Press.
- Unterecker, J. (1959) A Reader’s Guide to William Butler Yeats. Thames and Hudson.
- Yeats, W.B. (1920) Michael Robartes and the Dancer. Cuala Press.
